Expanding the scope of poly(ethylene glycol)s for bioconjugation to squaric acid-mediated PEGylation and pH-sensitivity

Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) is used in a broad range of applications due to its unique combination of properties and is approved use in formulations for body-care products, edibles and medicine. This thesis aims at the synthesis and characterization of novel heterofunctional PEG structures and the establishment of diethyl squarate as a suitable linker for the covalent attachment to proteins. Chapter 1 is an introduction on the properties and applications of PEG as well as the fascinating chemistry of squaric acid derivatives. In Chapter 1.1, the synthesis and properties of PEG are described, and the versatile applications of PEG derivatives in everyday products are emphasized with a focus on PEG-based pharmaceuticals and nonionic surfactants. This chapter is written in German, as it was published in the German Journal Chemie in unserer Zeit. Chapter 1.2 deals with PEGs major drawbacks, its non-biodegradability, which impedes parenteral administration of PEG conjugates with polyethers exceeding the renal excretion limit, although these would improve blood circulation times and passive tumor targeting. This section gives a comprehensive overview of the cleavable groups that have been implemented in the polyether backbone to tackle this issue as well as the synthetic strategies employed to accomplish this task. Chapter 1.3 briefly summarizes the chemical properties of alkyl squarates and the advantages in protein conjugation chemistry that can be taken from its use as a coupling agent. In Chapter 2, the application of diethyl squarate as a coupling agent in the PEGylation of proteins is illustrated. Chapter 2.1 describes the straightforward synthesis and characterization of squaric acid ethyl ester amido PEGs with terminal hydroxyl functions or methoxy groups. The reactivity and selectivity of theses activated PEGs are explored in kinetic studies on the reactions with different lysine and other amino acid derivatives, followed by 1H NMR spectroscopy. Further, the efficient attachment of the novel PEGs to a model protein, i.e., bovine serum albumin (BSA), demonstrates the usefulness of the new linker for the PEGylation with heterofunctional PEGs. In Chapter 2.3 initial studies on the biocompatibility of polyether/BSA conjugates synthesized by the squaric acid mediated PEGylation are presented. No cytotoxic effects on human umbilical vein endothelial cells exposed to various concentrations of the conjugates were observed in a WST-1 assay. A cell adhesion molecule - enzyme immunosorbent assay did not reveal the expression of E-selectin or ICAM-1, cell adhesion molecules involved in inflammation processes. The focus of Chapter 3 lies on the syntheses of novel heterofunctional PEG structures which are suitable candidates for the squaric acid mediated PEGylation and exhibit superior features compared to established PEGs applied in bioconjugation. Chapter 3.1 describes the synthetic route to well-defined, linear heterobifunctional PEGs carrying a single acid-sensitive moiety either at the initiation site or at a tunable position in the polyether backbone. A universal concept for the implementation of acetal moieties into initiators for the anionic ring-opening polymerization (AROP) of epoxides is presented and proven to grant access to the degradable PEG structures aimed at. The hydrolysis of the heterofunctional PEG with the acetal moiety at the initiating site is followed by 1H NMR spectroscopy in deuterium oxide at different pH. In an exploratory study, the same polymer is attached to BSA via the squarate acid coupling and subsequently cleaved from the conjugate under acidic conditions. Furthermore, the concept for the generation of acetal-modified AROP initiators is demonstrated to be suitable for cholesterol, and the respective amphiphilic cholesteryl-PEG is cleaved at lowered pH. In Chapter 3.2, the straightforward synthesis of α-amino ω2-dihydroxyl star-shaped three-arm PEGs is described. To assure a symmetric length of the hydroxyl-terminated PEG arms, a novel AROP initiator is presented, who’s primary and secondary hydroxyl groups are separated by an acetal moiety. Upon polymerization of ethylene oxide for these functionalities and subsequent cleavage of the acid-labile unit no difference in the degree of polymerization is seen for both polyether fragments.

New synthetic strategies towards indolizines and pyrroles

Indolizines and pyrroles are considered as “privileged” structures since their skeletons were found in many biologically active natural products and they possess a wide range of pharmaceutical properties. Syntheses of these small drug-like molecules are very important in medicinal chemistry. However, most existent methodologies are usually limited to specific substitution patterns or require impractical starting materials or expensive catalysts. Therefore, developing new methodologies for the synthesis of indolizines and pyrroles from commercially available or readily accessible sources is highly desirable.rnIn this PhD thesis, several methods has been described for the synthesis of indolizines and pyrroles. In the first part, indolizines carrying substituents in positions 1-3 were synthesized via a formal [3+2]-cycloaddition of pyridinium ylides and nitroalkenes. Pyridinium salts were prepared by N-alkylation of pyridines with cyanohydrin triflates which could be prepared from corresponding aldehydes via a Strecker reaction followed by O-triflylation. Nitroalkenes were simply prepared from the corresponding aldehydes and nitroalkanes in a nitroaldol condensation. Overall, this modular approach allows to construct the indolizine framework with various substitution patterns starting from a pyridine, two different aldehydes and a nitroalkane. In contrast to reported methods, the produced indolizines do not have to contain an electron-withdrawing group.rnIt has also been found that nitrile-stabilized 2-alkylpyridinium ylides cyclize to unstable 2-aminoindolizines via an intramolecular 5-exo-dig cyclization. Using an in situ acetylation of the amino group, N-protected 2-aminoindolizines could be synthesized. As a less common substitution pattern, indolizines carrying substituents in positions 5–8 were synthesized from enones and 2-(1H-pyrrol-1-yl)nitriles obtained from α-aminonitriles using a modified Paal-Knorr pyrrole synthesis. The decoration of the pyridine unit in the indolizine skeleton has been achieved by a one-pot conjugate addition/cycloaromatization sequence.rnIn the second part of the thesis, the diversity-oriented synthesis of pyrroles from 3,5-diaryl substituted 2H-pyrrole-2-carbonitriles (cyanopyrrolines) obtained in a cyclocondensation of enones with aminoacetonitrile hydrochloride is being discussed. 2,4-Di-, 2,3,5-trisubstituted pyrroles, pyrrole-2-carbonitriles and 2,2’-bipyrroles were synthesized in a one- or two-step protocol. While the microwave-assisted thermal elimination of HCN from cyanopyrrolines gave 2,4-disubstituted pyrroles, DDQ-oxidation of the same intermediates furnished pyrrole-2-carbonitriles. Furthermore, 2,3,5-trisubstituted pyrroles were obtained via a C-2-alkylation of the deprotonated cyanopyrrolines followed by the elimination of HCN. Finally, it has also been found that tetraaryl substituted 2,2’-bipyrroles could be synthesized by the oxidative dimerization of cyanopyrrolines using copper (II) acetate at 100 °C.rn

Modellkomplexe oligonuklearer Metalloproteine auf Basis von Salen-Liganden und Spin-Crossover-Verbindungen als Chemosensoren

Der erste Teil der hier vorgestellten Arbeit verfolgt die Synthese potentieller Modellverbindungen oligonuklearer Metalloproteine auf Basis von Salen-Liganden. Dazu wurden zwei Ligandensysteme mit unterschiedlich raumerfüllenden Alkyl-Substituenten modifiziert und auf ihre koordinativen Eigenschaften hin untersucht. Für das Ligandensystem auf Basis des Bis-(salicylidenamino)-propan-2-ols konnten fünf Derivate (H3L1, H3L2A,H3L2B, H3L3, H3L4), für das zweite verwendete Ligandensystem auf Basis des 1H-3,5-Bis-(salicylidenaminomethyl)-pyrazols konnten zwei weitere Derivate (H3L5A, H3L5B) dargestellt und zu Koordinationsverbindungen umgesetzt werden.rnFür den hier verwendeten Bis-(salicylidenamino)-propan-2-ol Liganden H3L1, welcher die geringsten sterischen Anforderungen stellt, konnten mono-, tri- und tetranukleare Koordinationsverbindungen synthetisiert werden. Dabei gelingt es dem Liganden, sich sowohl in planarer als auch in unterschiedlich stark gewinkelter Konformation um ein oder mehrere Metallzentren anzuordnen, wobei der Ligand ein N2O2- seines N2O3-Donorsets zur Koordination nutzt. Die Verbindung {[Ni7(HL1)2(L1)2(OBz)4(OMe)(H2O)]}n zeigt, dass eine Verkettung der so gestalteten dreikernigen Einheiten über das freie Propanol-Sauerstoffatomdes Ligandenrückgrats möglich ist. Mit zunehmendem sterischen Anspruch der angefügten Alkylsubstituenten nimmt die geometrische Flexibilität und somit das Potential des Liganden zur Ausbildung höhernuklearer Strukturen ab. So ist für Liganden mit mittlerem sterischen Anspruch neben mononuklearen Komplexen noch die Gestaltung dinuklearer Systeme möglich. Erhöht man den sterischen Anspruch des Liganden weiter, findet nur noch eine Reaktion zu mononuklearen Verbindungen statt.rnMit den Pyrazol-basierten Ligandensystemen H3L5A und H3L5B konnten dinukleare Kupfer- und Nickelverbindungen synthetisiert werden.rnDer zweite Teil dieser Arbeit befasst sich mit der Gestaltung von Spin-Crossover Systemen (SCO). Dazu soll ein Spinübergang innerhalb des gestalteten schaltbaren Systems an die Anwesenheit eines Signalstoffs gekoppelt werden, so dass diese SCO-Verbindung als Sensor für den Signalstoff eingesetzt werden kann. Dazu wurden zwei unterschiedliche Ansätze entwickelt und untersucht.rnDie erste Methode beruht auf der Kombination eines zum Spin-Crossover befähigten Metallzentrums, eines Capping-Liganden, eines zur Signalstofferkennung funktionalisierten Co-Liganden sowie eines entsprechenden Signalstoffs. Als Capping-Liganden wurden tetra- und pentadentateLigandensysteme eingesetzt und mit unterschiedlich Picolyl-substituierten Monoaza-[12]-krone-4-Derivaten umgesetzt, wobei die Monoazakrone zur Komplexierung des Signalstoffs,hier in Form eines Alkalimetallions, zur Verfügung steht. Nach dieser ersten Methode konnten im Zeitraum dieser Arbeit noch keine zufriedenstellenden Ergebnisse erzielt werden.rnEine vielversprechende zweite Möglichkeit beruht auf der Verwendung eines mehrzähnigen, etablierten Spin-Crossover Liganden,welcher in seiner Peripherie mit einer Bindungstasche zur Aufnahme des Signalstoffmodifiziert wird.Mit Hilfe des so gestalteten Liganden 4'-(4'''-Benzo-[15]-krone-5)-methyloxy-2,2':6',2''-terpyridin ([b15c5]-tpy) gelang die Umsetzung zu entsprechenden Eisen(II)- und Kobalt(II)komplexen der Zusammensetzung [M([b15c5]-tpy)2]2+. Alle synthetisierten Eisen(II)-Komplexe liegen aufgrund der hohen Ligandenfeldstärke des Terpyridins über einen Temperaturbereich von 300 – 400 K in ihrer diamagnetischen Low Spin Form vor. Die entsprechenden Kobalt(II)-Komplexe zeigen über einen Temperaturbereich von 2 – 350 K ein kontinuierliches, aber unvollständiges Spin-Crossover Verhalten.rnDer Einfluss von Signalstoffen auf das Spin-Crossover Verhalten der Kobalt(II)-Systeme wurde in einem ersten Versuch unter der Verwendung von Natriumionen als Signalstoff untersucht. Dabei stellte sich heraus, dass Natriumionen für dieses System zwar nicht als Auslöser eines SCO verwendet werden können, sie aber dennoch eine starke Auswirkung auf den Verlauf des Spin-Crossovers haben.

Novel organic semiconductors and their applications in electronics

The main goals of this thesis were the design, synthesis, and characterization of novel organic semiconductors, together with their applications in electronics, such as OFETs, OPVs, and OLEDs. The results can be summarized as follows:rn1. In chapter II, two novel angular n-type molecules were presented. Their different alkyl chains play a pivotal role in the molecular orientation relative to surface. One molecule with longer branched chains is tilted with respect to the substrate, thereby resulting in poor device performance, while the other adopt an edge-on orientation with an OFET electron mobility of 0.01 cm2 V-1 s-1.rn2. In chapter III, fused bis-benzothiadiazoles with different molecular geometries, namely linear benzoquinone-fused bis(benzothiadiazole) and V-shaped sulfone-fused bis(benzothiadiazole), were shown. This work not only contributes to the diversity of electron acceptors based on bis-benzothiadiazole moieties, but also highlights the important role of molecular shape for the solid-state packing of organic conjugated materials. In chapter IV, we demonstrated the synthesis of layered acceptors via dimerization of thiadiazole end-capped acenes. Interestingly, they feature huge differences in their photophysical properties. One compound showed a new strong emission in the near-infrared region introduced by the aggregation effect. The planosymmetric compound featured intramolecular excimer (IEE) fluorescence in solution. rn3. In chapter V and VI, we have demonstrated the synthesis of novel spiro-bifluorene based asymmetric and symmetric cruciform electron acceptors with dicyanovinylene substitutions. The solar cells based on PTB7:asymmetric acceptor yields the highest PCE of 0.80%. Such results demonstrate for the first time that dicyanovinylene substituted acceptor could be an alternative to fullerene-based acceptors. rn4. In chapter VII, two novel blue-emitting compounds were shown, which consist of dihydroindenofluorenyl units and ladder-type poly-p-phenylene groups, respectively. The two novel cruciform rigid compounds present not only excellent thermal and electrochemical stability but also high PLQYs. Through analysis of their triplet energy levels, both molecules can be served as hosts for other normal fluorescent or phosphorescent materials.rn