Development and characterization of a distributed measurement system for the evaluation of voltage quality in electric power networks

The research activity carried out during the PhD course in Electrical Engineering belongs to the branch of electric and electronic measurements. The main subject of the present thesis is a distributed measurement system to be installed in Medium Voltage power networks, as well as the method developed to analyze data acquired by the measurement system itself and to monitor power quality. In chapter 2 the increasing interest towards power quality in electrical systems is illustrated, by reporting the international research activity inherent to the problem and the relevant standards and guidelines emitted. The aspect of the quality of voltage provided by utilities and influenced by customers in the various points of a network came out only in recent years, in particular as a consequence of the energy market liberalization. Usually, the concept of quality of the delivered energy has been associated mostly to its continuity. Hence the reliability was the main characteristic to be ensured for power systems. Nowadays, the number and duration of interruptions are the “quality indicators” commonly perceived by most customers; for this reason, a short section is dedicated also to network reliability and its regulation. In this contest it should be noted that although the measurement system developed during the research activity belongs to the field of power quality evaluation systems, the information registered in real time by its remote stations can be used to improve the system reliability too. Given the vast scenario of power quality degrading phenomena that usually can occur in distribution networks, the study has been focused on electromagnetic transients affecting line voltages. The outcome of such a study has been the design and realization of a distributed measurement system which continuously monitor the phase signals in different points of a network, detect the occurrence of transients superposed to the fundamental steady state component and register the time of occurrence of such events. The data set is finally used to locate the source of the transient disturbance propagating along the network lines. Most of the oscillatory transients affecting line voltages are due to faults occurring in any point of the distribution system and have to be seen before protection equipment intervention. An important conclusion is that the method can improve the monitored network reliability, since the knowledge of the location of a fault allows the energy manager to reduce as much as possible both the area of the network to be disconnected for protection purposes and the time spent by technical staff to recover the abnormal condition and/or the damage. The part of the thesis presenting the results of such a study and activity is structured as follows: chapter 3 deals with the propagation of electromagnetic transients in power systems by defining characteristics and causes of the phenomena and briefly reporting the theory and approaches used to study transients propagation. Then the state of the art concerning methods to detect and locate faults in distribution networks is presented. Finally the attention is paid on the particular technique adopted for the same purpose during the thesis, and the methods developed on the basis of such approach. Chapter 4 reports the configuration of the distribution networks on which the fault location method has been applied by means of simulations as well as the results obtained case by case. In this way the performance featured by the location procedure firstly in ideal then in realistic operating conditions are tested. In chapter 5 the measurement system designed to implement the transients detection and fault location method is presented. The hardware belonging to the measurement chain of every acquisition channel in remote stations is described. Then, the global measurement system is characterized by considering the non ideal aspects of each device that can concur to the final combined uncertainty on the estimated position of the fault in the network under test. Finally, such parameter is computed according to the Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurements, by means of a numeric procedure. In the last chapter a device is described that has been designed and realized during the PhD activity aiming at substituting the commercial capacitive voltage divider belonging to the conditioning block of the measurement chain. Such a study has been carried out aiming at providing an alternative to the used transducer that could feature equivalent performance and lower cost. In this way, the economical impact of the investment associated to the whole measurement system would be significantly reduced, making the method application much more feasible.

Sviluppo e caratterizzazione di bulk superconduttori in MgB2 per sistemi di levitazione

Superconduttori bulk in MgB2, ottenuti con tecnologia Mg-RLI brevettata da Edison Spa, sono stati oggetto di un'approfondita analisi in termini di forze di levitazione. Questo studio è stato preliminare per la progettazione di un innovativo sistema di levitazione lineare. I risultati ottenuti sperimentalmente sono stati validati attraverso modelli numerici sviluppati ad hoc. I campioni oggetto dello studio sono tre bulk in MgB2 rappresentativi delle tipiche forme usate nelle applicazioni reali: un disco, un cilindro, una piastra. I bulk sono stati misurati con un sistema di misura per le forze di levitazione realizzato a tale scopo. Un protocollo sperimentale è stato seguito per la caratterizzazione di base, sia in condizioni Field Cooling sia Zero Field Cooling, al quale sono state affiancate prove specifiche come la possibilità di mantenere inalterate le proprietà superconduttive attraverso la giunzione di più campioni con la tecnologia Mg-RLI. Un modello numerico è stato sviluppato per convalidare i risultati sperimentali e per studiare l'elettrodinamica della levitazione. Diverse configurazioni di rotori magnetici sono state accoppiate con un cilindro in MgB2 con lo scopo di valutare la soluzione ottimale; questo tema è stato apporofondito attraverso lo sviluppo di un software di simulazione che può tenere conto sia del numero di magneti sia della presenza di anelli in materiale magneti intercalati fra di essi. Studi analoghi sono stati portati avanti su una piastra di MgB2 per simulare il comportamento di una geometria piana. Un sistema di raffreddamento innovativo basato sull'azoto solido è stato studiato per poterlo accoppiare con un sistema di levitazione. Il criostato progettato è costituito da due dewar, uno dentro l'altro; quello interno ha lo scopo di raffreddare l'MgB2 mentre quello esterno di limitare delle perdite verso l'esterno. Il criopattino così ottenuto è accoppiato in condizioni FC ad una rotaia formata da magneti permanenti in NdFeB.

The Enhanced Single-dish Control System and wide surveys of compact sources

The Italian radio telescopes currently undergo a major upgrade period in response to the growing demand for deep radio observations, such as surveys on large sky areas or observations of vast samples of compact radio sources. The optimised employment of the Italian antennas, at first constructed mainly for VLBI activities and provided with a control system (FS – Field System) not tailored to single-dish observations, required important modifications in particular of the guiding software and data acquisition system. The production of a completely new control system called ESCS (Enhanced Single-dish Control System) for the Medicina dish started in 2007, in synergy with the software development for the forthcoming Sardinia Radio Telescope (SRT). The aim is to produce a system optimised for single-dish observations in continuum, spectrometry and polarimetry. ESCS is also planned to be installed at the Noto site. A substantial part of this thesis work consisted in designing and developing subsystems within ESCS, in order to provide this software with tools to carry out large maps, spanning from the implementation of On-The-Fly fast scans (following both conventional and innovative observing strategies) to the production of single-dish standard output files and the realisation of tools for the quick-look of the acquired data. The test period coincided with the commissioning phase for two devices temporarily installed – while waiting for the SRT to be completed – on the Medicina antenna: a 18-26 GHz 7-feed receiver and the 14-channel analogue backend developed for its use. It is worth stressing that it is the only K-band multi-feed receiver at present available worldwide. The commissioning of the overall hardware/software system constituted a considerable section of the thesis work. Tests were led in order to verify the system stability and its capabilities, down to sensitivity levels which had never been reached in Medicina using the previous observing techniques and hardware devices. The aim was also to assess the scientific potential of the multi-feed receiver for the production of wide maps, exploiting its temporary availability on a mid-sized antenna. Dishes like the 32-m antennas at Medicina and Noto, in fact, offer the best conditions for large-area surveys, especially at high frequencies, as they provide a suited compromise between sufficiently large beam sizes to cover quickly large areas of the sky (typical of small-sized telescopes) and sensitivity (typical of large-sized telescopes). The KNoWS (K-band Northern Wide Survey) project is aimed at the realisation of a full-northern-sky survey at 21 GHz; its pilot observations, performed using the new ESCS tools and a peculiar observing strategy, constituted an ideal test-bed for ESCS itself and for the multi-feed/backend system. The KNoWS group, which I am part of, supported the commissioning activities also providing map-making and source-extraction tools, in order to complete the necessary data reduction pipeline and assess the general system scientific capabilities. The K-band observations, which were carried out in several sessions along the December 2008-March 2010 period, were accompanied by the realisation of a 5 GHz test survey during the summertime, which is not suitable for high-frequency observations. This activity was conceived in order to check the new analogue backend separately from the multi-feed receiver, and to simultaneously produce original scientific data (the 6-cm Medicina Survey, 6MS, a polar cap survey to complete PMN-GB6 and provide an all-sky coverage at 5 GHz).

Body ares networks for human motor assessment

Healthcare, Human Computer Interfaces (HCI), Security and Biometry are the most promising application scenario directly involved in the Body Area Networks (BANs) evolution. Both wearable devices and sensors directly integrated in garments envision a word in which each of us is supervised by an invisible assistant monitoring our health and daily-life activities. New opportunities are enabled because improvements in sensors miniaturization and transmission efficiency of the wireless protocols, that achieved the integration of high computational power aboard independent, energy-autonomous, small form factor devices. Application’s purposes are various: (I) data collection to achieve off-line knowledge discovery; (II) user notification of his/her activities or in case a danger occurs; (III) biofeedback rehabilitation; (IV) remote alarm activation in case the subject need assistance; (V) introduction of a more natural interaction with the surrounding computerized environment; (VI) users identification by physiological or behavioral characteristics. Telemedicine and mHealth [1] are two of the leading concepts directly related to healthcare. The capability to borne unobtrusiveness objects supports users’ autonomy. A new sense of freedom is shown to the user, not only supported by a psychological help but a real safety improvement. Furthermore, medical community aims the introduction of new devices to innovate patient treatments. In particular, the extension of the ambulatory analysis in the real life scenario by proving continuous acquisition. The wide diffusion of emerging wellness portable equipment extended the usability of wearable devices also for fitness and training by monitoring user performance on the working task. The learning of the right execution techniques related to work, sport, music can be supported by an electronic trainer furnishing the adequate aid. HCIs made real the concept of Ubiquitous, Pervasive Computing and Calm Technology introduced in the 1988 by Marc Weiser and John Seeley Brown. They promotes the creation of pervasive environments, enhancing the human experience. Context aware, adaptive and proactive environments serve and help people by becoming sensitive and reactive to their presence, since electronics is ubiquitous and deployed everywhere. In this thesis we pay attention to the integration of all the aspects involved in a BAN development. Starting from the choice of sensors we design the node, configure the radio network, implement real-time data analysis and provide a feedback to the user. We present algorithms to be implemented in wearable assistant for posture and gait analysis and to provide assistance on different walking conditions, preventing falls. Our aim, expressed by the idea to contribute at the development of a non proprietary solutions, driven us to integrate commercial and standard solutions in our devices. We use sensors available on the market and avoided to design specialized sensors in ASIC technologies. We employ standard radio protocol and open source projects when it was achieved. The specific contributions of the PhD research activities are presented and discussed in the following. • We have designed and build several wireless sensor node providing both sensing and actuator capability making the focus on the flexibility, small form factor and low power consumption. The key idea was to develop a simple and general purpose architecture for rapid analysis, prototyping and deployment of BAN solutions. Two different sensing units are integrated: kinematic (3D accelerometer and 3D gyroscopes) and kinetic (foot-floor contact pressure forces). Two kind of feedbacks were implemented: audio and vibrotactile. • Since the system built is a suitable platform for testing and measuring the features and the constraints of a sensor network (radio communication, network protocols, power consumption and autonomy), we made a comparison between Bluetooth and ZigBee performance in terms of throughput and energy efficiency. Test in the field evaluate the usability in the fall detection scenario. • To prove the flexibility of the architecture designed, we have implemented a wearable system for human posture rehabilitation. The application was developed in conjunction with biomedical engineers who provided the audio-algorithms to furnish a biofeedback to the user about his/her stability. • We explored off-line gait analysis of collected data, developing an algorithm to detect foot inclination in the sagittal plane, during walk. • In collaboration with the Wearable Lab – ETH, Zurich, we developed an algorithm to monitor the user during several walking condition where the user carry a load. The remainder of the thesis is organized as follows. Chapter I gives an overview about Body Area Networks (BANs), illustrating the relevant features of this technology and the key challenges still open. It concludes with a short list of the real solutions and prototypes proposed by academic research and manufacturers. The domain of the posture and gait analysis, the methodologies, and the technologies used to provide real-time feedback on detected events, are illustrated in Chapter II. The Chapter III and IV, respectively, shown BANs developed with the purpose to detect fall and monitor the gait taking advantage by two inertial measurement unit and baropodometric insoles. Chapter V reports an audio-biofeedback system to improve balance on the information provided by the use centre of mass. A walking assistant based on the KNN classifier to detect walking alteration on load carriage, is described in Chapter VI.

Development of human visual system analysis for the implementation of a new instrument for flicker measurement

Flicker is a power quality phenomenon that applies to cycle instability of light intensity resulting from supply voltage fluctuation, which, in turn can be caused by disturbances introduced during power generation, transmission or distribution. The standard EN 61000-4-15 which has been recently adopted also by the IEEE as IEEE Standard 1453 relies on the analysis of the supply voltage which is processed according to a suitable model of the lamp – human eye – brain chain. As for the lamp, an incandescent 60 W, 230 V, 50 Hz source is assumed. As far as the human eye – brain model is concerned, it is represented by the so-called flicker curve. Such a curve was determined several years ago by statistically analyzing the results of tests where people were subjected to flicker with different combinations of magnitude and frequency. The limitations of this standard approach to flicker evaluation are essentially two. First, the provided index of annoyance Pst can be related to an actual tiredness of the human visual system only if such an incandescent lamp is used. Moreover, the implemented response to flicker is “subjective” given that it relies on the people answers about their feelings. In the last 15 years, many scientific contributions have tackled these issues by investigating the possibility to develop a novel model of the eye-brain response to flicker and overcome the strict dependence of the standard on the kind of the light source. In this light of fact, this thesis is aimed at presenting an important contribution for a new Flickermeter. An improved visual system model using a physiological parameter that is the mean value of the pupil diameter, has been presented, thus allowing to get a more “objective” representation of the response to flicker. The system used to both generate flicker and measure the pupil diameter has been illustrated along with all the results of several experiments performed on the volunteers. The intent has been to demonstrate that the measurement of that geometrical parameter can give reliable information about the feeling of the human visual system to light flicker.

Integrating new and traditional approaches for the estimate of slip-rates of active faults: examples from the Mw 6.3, 2009 L’Aquila earthquake area, Central Italy

This thesis is based on the integration of traditional and innovative approaches aimed at improving the normal faults seimogenic identification and characterization, focusing mainly on slip-rate estimate as a measure of the fault activity. The L’Aquila Mw 6.3 April 6, 2009 earthquake causative fault, namely the Paganica - San Demetrio fault system (PSDFS), was used as a test site. We developed a multidisciplinary and scale‐based strategy consisting of paleoseismological investigations, detailed geomorphological and geological field studies, as well as shallow geophysical imaging and an innovative application of physical properties measurements. We produced a detailed geomorphological and geological map of the PSDFS, defining its tectonic style, arrangement, kinematics, extent, geometry and internal complexities. The PSDFS is a 19 km-long tectonic structure, characterized by a complex structural setting and arranged in two main sectors: the Paganica sector to the NW, characterized by a narrow deformation zone, and the San Demetrio sector to SE, where the strain is accommodated by several tectonic structures, exhuming and dissecting a wide Quaternary basin, suggesting the occurrence of strain migration through time. The integration of all the fault displacement data and age constraints (radiocarbon dating, optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) and tephrochronology) helped in calculating an average Quaternary slip-rate representative for the PSDFS of 0.27 - 0.48 mm/yr. On the basis of its length (ca. 20 km) and slip per event (up to 0.8 m) we also estimated a max expected Magnitude of 6.3-6.8 for this fault. All these topics have a significant implication in terms of surface faulting hazard in the area and may contribute also to the understanding of the PSDFS seismic behavior and of the local seismic hazard.

Portal hypertension: a comparison between portal-venous pressure measurement and ARFI measurement of liver and spleen stiffness

PURPOSE. Portal pressure is measured invasively as Hepatic Venous Pressure Gradient (HVPG) in the angiography room. Liver stiffness measured by Fibroscan was shown to correlate with HVPG values below 12 mmHg. This is not surprising, since in cirrhosis the increase of portal pressure is not directly linked with liver fibrosis and consequently to liver stiffness. We hypothesized that, given the spleen’s privileged location upstream to the whole portal system, splenic stiffness could provide relevant information about portal pressure. Aim of the study was to assess the relationship between liver and spleen stiffness measured by Virtual Touch™ (ARFI) and HVPG in cirrhotic patients. METHODS. 40 consecutive patients (30 males, mean age 62y, mean BMI=26, mean Child-Pugh A6, mean platelet count=92.000/mmc, 19 HCV+, 7 with ascites) underwent to ARFI stiffness measurement (10 valid measurements in right liver lobe both surface and centre, left lobe and 20 in the spleen) and HPVG, blindly to each other. Median ARFI values of 10 samplings on every liver area and of 20 samplings on spleen were calculated. RESULTS. Stiffness could be easily measured in all patients with ARFI, resulting a mean of 2,61±0,76, 2,5±0,62 and 2,55±0,66 m/sec in the liver areas and 3.3±0,5 m/s in the spleen. Median HPVG was 14 mmHg (range 5-27); 28 patients showed values ≥10 mmHg. A positive significant correlation was found between spleen stiffness and HPVG values (r=0.744, p<0.001). No significant correlation was found between all liver stiffness and HVPG (p>0,05). AUROC was calculated to test spleen stiffness ability in discriminating patients with HVPG ≥10. AUROC = 0.911 was obtained, with sensitivity of 69% and specificity of 91% at a cut-off of 3.26 m/s. CONCLUSION. Spleen stiffness measurement with ARFI correlates with HVPG in patients with cirrhosis, with a potential of identifying patients with clinically significant portal hypertension.