Design and Characterization of New Luminescent Sensors and Labels

The aim of this Ph.D. project has been the design and characterization of new and more efficient luminescent tools, in particular sensors and labels, for analytical chemistry, medical diagnostics and imaging. Actually both the increasing temporal and spatial resolutions that are demanded by those branches, coupled to a sensitivity that is required to reach the single molecule resolution, can be provided by the wide range of techniques based on luminescence spectroscopy. As far as the development of new chemical sensors is concerned, as chemists we were interested in the preparation of new, efficient, sensing materials. In this context, we kept developing new molecular chemosensors, by exploiting the supramolecular approach, for different classes of analytes. In particular we studied a family of luminescent tetrapodal-hosts based on aminopyridinium units with pyrenyl groups for the detection of anions. These systems exhibited noticeable changes in the photophysical properties, depending on the nature of the anion; in particular, addition of chloride resulted in a conformational change, giving an initial increase in excimeric emission. A good selectivity for dicarboxylic acid was also found. In the search for higher sensitivities, we moved our attention also to systems able to perform amplification effects. In this context we described the metal ion binding properties of three photoactive poly-(arylene ethynylene) co-polymers with different complexing units and we highlighted, for one of them, a ten-fold amplification of the response in case of addition of Zn2+, Cu2+ and Hg2+ ions. In addition, we were able to demonstrate the formation of complexes with Yb3+ an Er3+ and an efficient sensitization of their typical metal centered NIR emission upon excitation of the polymer structure, this feature being of particular interest for their possible applications in optical imaging and in optical amplification for telecommunication purposes. An amplification effect was also observed during this research in silica nanoparticles derivatized with a suitable zinc probe. In this case we were able to prove, for the first time, that nanoparticles can work as “off-on” chemosensors with signal amplification. Fluorescent silica nanoparticles can be thus seen as innovative multicomponent systems in which the organization of photophysically active units gives rise to fruitful collective effects. These precious effects can be exploited for biological imaging, medical diagnostic and therapeutics, as evidenced also by some results reported in this thesis. In particular, the observed amplification effect has been obtained thanks to a suitable organization of molecular probe units onto the surface of the nanoparticles. In the effort of reaching a deeper inside in the mechanisms which lead to the final amplification effects, we also attempted to find a correlation between the synthetic route and the final organization of the active molecules in the silica network, and thus with those mutual interactions between one another which result in the emerging, collective behavior, responsible for the desired signal amplification. In this context, we firstly investigated the process of formation of silica nanoparticles doped with pyrene derivative and we showed that the dyes are not uniformly dispersed inside the silica matrix; thus, core-shell structures can be formed spontaneously in a one step synthesis. Moreover, as far as the design of new labels is concerned, we reported a new synthetic approach to obtain a class of robust, biocompatible silica core-shell nanoparticles able to show a long-term stability. Taking advantage of this new approach we also showed the synthesis and photophysical properties of core-shell NIR absorbing and emitting materials that proved to be very valuable for in-vivo imaging. In general, the dye doped silica nanoparticles prepared in the framework of this project can conjugate unique properties, such as a very high brightness, due to the possibility to include many fluorophores per nanoparticle, high stability, because of the shielding effect of the silica matrix, and, to date, no toxicity, with a simple and low-cost preparation. All these features make these nanostructures suitable to reach the low detection limits that are nowadays required for effective clinical and environmental applications, fulfilling in this way the initial expectations of this research project.

Photo- and redox-active supramolecular systems containing metal complexes

The aim of this Ph.D. project has been the photophysical and photochemical characterization of new photo- and redox-active supramolecular systems. In particular we studied two different classes of compounds: metal complexes and dendrimers. Two different families of bis-cyclometalated neutral Ir(III) complexes are presented and their photophysical properties are discussed. The first family of complexes contains two 2-phenylpyridyl (ppy) or 2-(4,6-difluorophenyl)pyridyl (F2ppy) cyclometalated ligands and an ancillary ligand constituted by a phenol-oxazoline (phox), which can be substituted in the third position with a fluorine group (Fphox). In the second part of this study, we present another family of bis-cyclometalated Ir(III) complexes in which the ancillary ligand could be a chiral or an achiral bis-oxazoline (box). We report on their structural, electrochemical, photophysical, and photochemical properties. Complexes containing phox and Fphox ancillary ligands show blue luminescence with very high quantum yield, while complexes with box ligands do not show particularly interesting photophysical properties. Surprisingly these complexes give an unexpected photoreaction when irradiated with UV light in presence of dioxygen. This photoreaction originates a stable, strong blue emitting and particularly interesting photoproduct. Three successive generations of a family of polyethyleneglycol (PEG)-coated Pd(II) tetrabenzoporphyrin (PdTBP)-based dendritic nanoprobes are presented, and their ability to sensitize singlet oxygen and inflict cellular photodamage are discussed. It was found that the size of the dendrimer has practically no effect on the singlet oxygen sensitization efficiency, that approximate the unity, in spite of the strong attenuation of the triplet quenching rate with an increase in the dendrimer generation. Nevertheless, when compared against a commonly used singlet oxygen sensitizer, as Photofrin, the phosphorescent probes were found to be non-phototoxic. The lack of phototoxicity is presumably due to the inability of PEGylated probes to associate with cell surfaces and/or penetrate cellular membranes. The results suggest that protected phosphorescent probes can be safely used for oxygen measurements in biological systems in vivo. A new family of two photoswitchable (G0(Azo) and G1(Azo)) dendrimers with an azobenzene core, two cyclam units as coordination sites for metal ions, and luminescent naphthalene units at the periphery have been characterized and their coordination abilities have been studied. Because of their proximity, the various functional groups of the dendrimer may interact, so that the properties of the dendrimers are different from those exhibited by the separated functional units. Both the naphthalene fluorescence and the azobenzene photoisomerization can be observed in the dendrimer, but it has been shown that (i) the fluorescent excited state of the naphthalene units is substantially quenched by excimer and exciplex formation and by energy transfer to the azobenzene units, and (ii) in the latter case the fluorescence quenching is accompanied by the photosensitized isomerization of the trans → cis, and, with higher efficiency, the cis → trans reaction. Complexation of these dendrimers, both trans and cis isomers, with Zn(II) ions shows that complexes of 1:1 and 2:1 metal per dendrimer stoichiometry are formed showing different photophysical and photochemical properties compared to the corresponding free ligands. Practically unitary efficiency of the sensitized isomerization of trans → cis and cis → trans reaction is observed, as well as a slight increase in the naphthalene monomer emission. These results are consistent with the coordination of the cyclam amine units with Zn(II), which prevents exciplex formation. No indication of a concomitant coordination of both cyclam to a single metal ion has been obtained both for trans and cis isomer.

Rapporto tra struttura e funzione della cistatina B e dei suoi mutanti in relazione all'epilessia mioclonica progressiva di tipo 1 (EPM1)

This work shows for the first time that native CSTB polymerizes on addition of Cu2+ and DnaK (Hsp70). Cysteines are involved in the polymerization process and in particular at least one cysteine is necessary. We propose that Cu2+ interacts with the thiol group of cysteine and oxidize it. The oxidized cysteine modifies the CSTB structure allowing interaction with DnaK/Hsp70 to occur. Thus, Cu2+ binding to CSTB exposes a site for DnaK and such interaction allows the polymerization of CSTB. The polymers generated from native CSTB monomers, are DTT sensitive and they may represent physiological polymers. Denatured CSTB does not require Cu2+ and polymerizes simply on addition of DnaK. The polymers generated from denatured CSTB do not respond to DTT. They have characteristics similar to those of the CSTB toxic aggregates described in vivo in eukaryotic cells following CSTB over-expression. Interaction between CSTB and Hsp70 is shown by IP experiments. The interaction occurs with WT CSTB and not with the cys mutant. This suggests that disulphur bonds are involved. Methal-cathalyzed oxidation of proteins involves reduction of the metal ion(s) bound to the protein itself and oxidation of neighboring ammino acid residues resulting in structural modification and de-stabilization of the molecule. In this work we propose that the cysteine thyol residue of CSTB in the presence of Cu2+ is oxidized, and cathalyzes the formation of disulphide bonds with Hsp70, that, once bound to CSTB, mediates its polymerization. In vivo this molecular mechanism of CSTB polymerization could be regulated by redox environment through the cysteine residue. This may imply that CSTB physiological polymers have a specific cellular function, different from that of the protease inhibitor known for the CSTB monomer. This hypothesis is interesting in relation to Progressive Myoclonus Epilepsy of type 1 (EPM1). This pathology is usually caused by mutations in the CSTB gene. CSTB is a ubiquitous protein, but EPM1 patients have problems only in the central nervous system. Maybe physiological CSTB polymers have a specific function altered in people affected by EPM1.

Characterization of the structure and iron uptake mechanisms of the Staphylococcus aureus ferric hydroxamate-binding lipoprotein FhuD2

The Reverse Vaccinology (RV) approach allows using genomic information for the delineation of new protein-based vaccines starting from an in silico analysis. The first powerful example of the application of the RV approach is given by the development of a protein-based vaccine against serogroup B Meningococcus. A similar approach was also used to identify new Staphylococcus aureus vaccine candidates, including the ferric hydroxamate-binding lipoprotein FhuD2. S. aureus is a widespread human pathogen, which employs various different strategies for iron uptake, including: (i) siderophore-mediated iron acquisition using the endogenous siderophores staphyloferrin A and B, (ii) siderophore-mediated iron acquisition using xeno-siderophores (the pathway exploited by FhuD2) and (iii) heme-mediated iron acquisition. In this work the high resolution crystal structure of FhuD2 in the iron (III)-siderophore-bound form was determined. FhuD2 belongs to the Periplasmic Binding Protein family (PBP ) class III, and is principally formed by two globular domains, at the N- and C-termini of the protein, that make up a cleft where ferrichrome-iron (III) is bound. The N- and C-terminal domains, connected by a single long α-helix, present Rossmann-like folds, showing a β-stranded core and an α-helical periphery, which do not undergo extensive structural rearrangement when they interact with the ligand, typical of class III PBP members. The structure shows that ferrichrome-bound iron does not come directly into contact with the protein; rather, the metal ion is fully coordinated by six oxygen donors of the hydroxamate groups of three ornithine residues, which, with the three glycine residues, make up the peptide backbone of ferrichrome. Furthermore, it was found that iron-free ferrichrome is able to subtract iron from transferrin. This study shows for the first time the structure of FhuD2, which was found to bind to siderophores ,and that the protein plays an important role in S. aureus colonization and infection phases.

Valutazione del rilascio ionico in pazienti portatori di protesi di rivestimento d'anca BHR: confronto a lungo termine con artroplastica totale d'anca metallo-metallo

Lo scopo di questo studio è stato quello di determinare se a lungo termine le concentrazioni sieriche di ioni nei pazienti con protesi di rivestimento d’anca metallo-metallo (MOM-HR, metal-on-metal hip resurfacing) fossero differenti da quelle valutate nei pazienti con protesi totale d’anca metallo-metallo e testa del diametro di 28 mm (MOM-THA, metal-on-metal total hip arthroplasty); inoltre è stato valutato se le concentrazioni ioniche fossero al di sopra dei valori di riferimento e se fosse possibile stabilire l’esistenza di una relazione tra sesso e concentrazioni di ioni con riferimento al tipo di impianto. Il gruppo MOM-HR era costituito da 25 pazienti mentre il gruppo MOM-THA era di 16 pazienti. Per poter ricavare i valori di riferimento sono stati reclutati 48 donatori sani. La misurazione delle concentrazioni degli ioni cobalto (Co), cromo (Cr), nickel (Ni) e molibdeno (Mo) è stata effettuata utilizzando la spettrofotometria ad assorbimento atomico su fornace di grafite. A parte il Ni, le concentrazioni di ioni nei pazienti con MOM-HR erano più elevate rispetto ai controlli. Il rilascio di ioni Cr e Co nei pazienti con MOM-HR è risultato superiore rispetto ai soggetti con MOM-THA. Da un’analisi basata sul sesso, è emerso che nelle femmine con MOM-HR i livelli di ioni Cr e Co sono risultati significativamente aumentati rispetto alle femmine con MOM-THA. Indipendentemente dal tipo di impianto, gli accoppiamenti metallo-metallo (MOM) producono concentrazioni di ioni metallici significativamente più alte a follow-up a lungo termine rispetto a quelle osservate nei soggetti sani. Un fattore che deve essere attentamente considerato nella scelta dell’impianto, e in particolar modo nei soggetti giovani, è il cospicuo rilascio di ioni Cr e Co nella popolazione femminile con MOM-HR.

Structural and biochemical studies of Sporosarcina pasteurii UreE: a nickel-chaperone involved in the urease activation process

Urease is a nickel-dependent enzyme that catalyzes hydrolysis of urea in the last step of organic nitrogen mineralization. Its active site contains a dinuclear center for Ni(II) ions that must be inserted into the apo-enzyme through the action of four accessory proteins (UreD, UreE, UreF, UreG) leading to activation of urease. UreE, acting as a metallo-chaperone, delivers Ni(II) to the preformed complex of apo-urease-UreDFG and has the capability to enhance the GTPase activity of UreG. This study, focused on characterization of UreE from Sporosarcina pasteurii (SpUreE), represents a piece of information on the structure/mobility-function relationships that control nickel binding by SpUreE and its interaction with SpUreG. A calorimetric analysis revealed the occurrence of a binding event between these proteins with positive cooperativity and a stoichiometry consistent with the formation of the (UreE)2-(UreG)2 hetero-oligomer complex. Chemical Shift Perturbations induced by the protein-protein interaction were analyzed using high-resolution NMR spectroscopy, which allowed to characterize the molecular details of the protein surface of SpUreE involved in the complex formation with SpUreG. Moreover, backbone dynamic properties of SpUreE, determined using 15N relaxation analysis, revealed a general mobility in the nanoseconds time-scale, with the fastest motions observed at the C-termini. The latter analysis made it possible for the first time to characterize of the C-terminal portions, known to contain key residues for metal ion binding, that were not observed in the crystal structure of UreE because of disorder. The residues belonging to this portion of SpUreE feature large CSPs upon addition of SpUreG, showing that their chemical environment is directly affected by protein-protein interaction. Metal ion selectivity and affinity of SpUreE for cognate Ni(II) and non cognate Zn(II) metal ions were determined, and the ability of the protein to select Ni(II) over Zn(II), in consistency with the proposed role in Ni(II) cations transport, was established.

Optical Microring Resonators based on ion-implanted LiNbO3 ridge waveguides

The growing interest for Integrated Optics for sensing, telecommunications and even electronics is driving research to find solutions to the new challenges issued by a more and more fast, connected and smart world. This thesis deals with the design, the fabrication and the characterisation of the first prototypes of Microring Resonators realised using ion implanted Lithium Niobate (LiNbO3) ridge waveguides. Optical Resonator is one among the most important devices for all tasks described above. LiNbO3 is the substrate commonly used to fabricate optical modulators thanks to its electro-optic characteristics. Since it is produced in high quantity, good quality and large wafers its price is low compared to other electro-optic substrate. We propose to use ion implantation as fabrication technology because in the other way standard optical waveguides realised in LiNbO3 by Proton Exchange (PE) or metal diffusion do not allow small bending radii, which are necessary to keep the circuit footprint small. We will show in fact that this approach allows to fabricate waveguides on Lithium Niobate that are better than PE or metal diffused waveguides as it allows smaller size devices and tailoring of the refractive index profile controlling the implantation parameters. Moreover, we will show that the ridge technology based on enhanced etching rate via ion implantation produces a waveguide with roughness lower than a dry etched one. Finally it has been assessed a complete technological process for fabrication of Microring Resonator devices in Lithium Niobate by ion implantation and the first prototypes have been produced.

Advanced lithium and lithium-ion rechargeable batteries for automotive applications

The worldwide demand for a clean and low-fuel-consuming transport promotes the development of safe, high energy and power electrochemical storage and conversion systems. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are considered today the best technology for this application as demonstrated by the recent interest of automotive industry in hybrid (HEV) and electric vehicles (EV) based on LIBs. This thesis work, starting from the synthesis and characterization of electrode materials and the use of non-conventional electrolytes, demonstrates that LIBs with novel and safe electrolytes and electrode materials meet the targets of specific energy and power established by U.S.A. Department of Energy (DOE) for automotive application in HEV and EV. In chapter 2 is reported the origin of all chemicals used, the description of the instruments used for synthesis and chemical-physical characterizations, the electrodes preparation, the batteries configuration and the electrochemical characterization procedure of electrodes and batteries. Since the electrolyte is the main critical point of a battery, in particular in large- format modules, in chapter 3 we focused on the characterization of innovative and safe electrolytes based on ionic liquids (characterized by high boiling/decomposition points, thermal and electrochemical stability and appreciable conductivity) and mixtures of ionic liquid with conventional electrolyte. In chapter 4 is discussed the microwave accelerated sol–gel synthesis of the carbon- coated lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO 4 -C), an excellent cathode material for LIBs thanks to its intrinsic safety and tolerance to abusive conditions, which showed excellent electrochemical performance in terms of specific capacity and stability. In chapter 5 are presented the chemical-physical and electrochemical characterizations of graphite and titanium-based anode materials in different electrolytes. We also characterized a new anodic material, amorphous SnCo alloy, synthetized with a nanowire morphology that showed to strongly enhance the electrochemical stability of the material during galvanostatic full charge/discharge cycling. Finally, in chapter 6, are reported different types of batteries, assembled using the LiFePO 4 -C cathode material, different anode materials and electrolytes, characterized by deep galvanostatic charge/discharge cycles at different C-rates and by test procedures of the DOE protocol for evaluating pulse power capability and available energy. First, we tested a battery with the innovative cathode material LiFePO 4 -C and conventional graphite anode and carbonate-based electrolyte (EC DMC LiPF 6 1M) that demonstrated to surpass easily the target for power-assist HEV application. Given that the big concern of conventional lithium-ion batteries is the flammability of highly volatile organic carbonate- based electrolytes, we made safe batteries with electrolytes based on ionic liquid (IL). In order to use graphite anode in IL electrolyte we added to the IL 10% w/w of vinylene carbonate (VC) that produces a stable SEI (solid electrolyte interphase) and prevents the graphite exfoliation phenomenon. Then we assembled batteries with LiFePO 4 -C cathode, graphite anode and PYR 14 TFSI 0.4m LiTFSI with 10% w/w of VC that overcame the DOE targets for HEV application and were stable for over 275 cycles. We also assembled and characterized ―high safety‖ batteries with electrolytes based on pure IL, PYR 14 TFSI with 0.4m LiTFSI as lithium salt, and on mixture of this IL and standard electrolyte (PYR 14 TFSI 50% w/w and EC DMC LiPF 6 50% w/w), using titanium-based anodes (TiO 2 and Li 4 Ti 5 O 12 ) that are commonly considered safer than graphite in abusive conditions. The batteries bearing the pure ionic liquid did not satisfy the targets for HEV application, but the batteries with Li 4 Ti 5 O 12 anode and 50-50 mixture electrolyte were able to surpass the targets. We also assembled and characterized a lithium battery (with lithium metal anode) with a polymeric electrolyte based on poly-ethilenoxide (PEO 20 – LiCF 3 SO 3 +10%ZrO 2 ), which satisfied the targets for EV application and showed a very impressive cycling stability. In conclusion, we developed three lithium-ion batteries of different chemistries that demonstrated to be suitable for application in power-assist hybrid vehicles: graphite/EC DMC LiPF 6 /LiFePO 4 -C, graphite/PYR 14 TFSI 0.4m LiTFSI with 10% VC/LiFePO 4 -C and Li 4 T i5 O 12 /PYR 14 TFSI 50%-EC DMC LiPF 6 50%/LiFePO 4 -C. We also demonstrated that an all solid-state polymer lithium battery as Li/PEO 20 –LiCF 3 SO 3 +10%ZrO 2 /LiFePO 4 -C is suitable for application on electric vehicles. Furthermore we developed a promising anodic material alternative to the graphite, based on SnCo amorphous alloy.