An analysis of the regulatory chill hypothesis: environmental protection in international investment law

The goal of this thesis has been to find out whether ISDS and international investment law exert a chilling effect on more stringent environmental standards at the domestic level. Due to the lack of consistent empirical and statistical evidence uncovered during the analysis, this thesis largely dismisses the regulatory chill hypothesis. However, two exceptions are identified: first, there is evidence of the efforts made by domestic industrial groups and trade unions to prevent the implementation of stricter environmental standards; second, it has become apparent that unfounded beliefs, e.g. about ISDS, held by lawmakers and regulators can play an important role in chilling stricter environmental standards. For these reasons, a new and narrower definition of the regulatory chill phenomenon has been proposed, one that only encompasses those instances in which lawmakers, governments and government agencies refrain from adopting the laws and regulations that they deem the most appropriate because they believe that doing so would lead to adverse consequences at the international trade and investment level, despite a lack of consistent and robust evidence supporting their concerns. The second part of this thesis focusses on what could be done in international economic law to promote environmentally friendly FDI, while preventing the few instances in which regulatory chill may take place due to ill-founded beliefs held by lawmakers and regulators. Following an analysis that highlights the paramount role played by public participation and responsive institutions to achieve an appropriate level of environmental protection, this study ends with a proposal that recommends the adoption of a clause within IIAs that makes pre-investment environmental screening mandatory and free from ISDS oversight.

The Financial Services Regime in International Economic Law: on the Difficult Relationship between Trade Liberalization and Prudential Measures

The PhD thesis analyses the financial services regime in international economic law from the perspective of the difficult relationship between trade liberalisation and prudential measures. Financial stability plays a fundamental role for the well-being and well-functioning of the global economy, but, it is at the same time a complex sector to regulate and supervise and, especially after the 2007-08 economic crisis, States have tightened up their regulation of financial services, introducing more severe and protectionist prudential measures. However, in an increasingly interconnected global economy, the harmonization of prudential regulation at the international level is an essential step to guarantee integrity, fairness and stability of financial markets and trade. The research analyses the tools at disposition to achieve this aim, the related problematic issues and the perspectives and possible solutions for the future, starting from the World Trade Organization (WTO) legal framework and its General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), devoted to discipline trade in services among the WTO Members. Then, the research moves to a second legal instrument, the Free Trade Agreements (FTAs), which has witnessed a remarkable spread in the last decades. Finally, the research addresses the international standards, developed by supranational entities and implemented by an increasing number of States, as they offer rules and guidelines adequate to update the international financial scenario. Nevertheless, the international standards alone cannot be the solution because, first, they are not mandatory, as governments decide voluntarily to apply them and, second, their decision-making process do not respect the requirements of transparency and representative membership. In light of this analysis, the thesis aims at providing an answer to its research question: how to give more certainty to States and economic operators in the planning of the domestic disciplines and business activities in order to provide a sound and stable international financial system.

Ricerca, mediante tecniche di proteomica, di biomarcatori proteici utili nella valutazione della qualità degli alimenti di origine animale

In the last decades, the increase of industrial activities and of the request for the world food requirement, the intensification of natural resources exploitation, directly connected to pollution, have aroused an increasing interest of the public opinion towards initiatives linked to the regulation of food production, as well to the institution of a modern legislation for the consumer guardianship. This work was planned taking into account some important thematics related to marine environment, collecting and showing the data obtained from the studies made on different marine species of commercial interest (Chamelea gallina, Mytilus edulis, Ostrea edulis, Crassostrea gigas, Salmo salar, Gadus morhua). These studies have evaluated the effects of important physic and chemical parameters variations (temperature, xenobiotics like drugs, hydrocarbons and pesticides) on cells involved in the immune defence (haemocytes) and on some important enzymatic systems involved in xenobiotic biotransformation processes (cytochrome P450 complex) and in the related antioxidant defence processes (Superoxide dismutase, Catalase, Heat Shock Protein), from a biochemical and bimolecular point of view. Oxygen is essential in the biological answer of a living organism. Its consume in the normal cellular breathing physiological processes and foreign substances biotransformation, leads to reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, potentially toxic and responsible of biological macromolecules damages with consequent pathologies worsening. Such processes can bring to a qualitative alteration of the derived products, but also to a general state of suffering that in the most serious cases can provoke the death of the organism, with important repercussions in economic field, in the output of the breedings, of fishing and of aquaculture. In this study it seemed interesting to apply also alternative methodologies currently in use in the medical field (cytofluorimetry) and in proteomic studies (bidimensional electrophoresis, mass spectrometry) with the aim of identify new biomarkers to place beside the traditional methods for the control of the animal origin food quality. From the results it’s possible to point out some relevant aspects from each experiment: 1. The cytofluorimetric techniques applied to O. edulis and C. gigas could bring to important developments in the search of alternative methods that quickly allows to identify with precision the origin of a specific sample, contributing to oppose possible alimentary frauds, in this case for example related to presence of a different species, also under a qualitative profile, but morpholgically similar. A concrete perspective for the application in the inspective field of this method has to be confirmed by further laboratory tests that take also in account in vivo experiments to evaluate the effect in the whole organism of the factors evaluated only on haemocytes in vitro. These elements suggest therefore the possibility to suit the cytofluorimetric methods for the study of animal organisms of food interest, still before these enter the phase of industrial working processes, giving useful information about the possible presence of contaminants sources that can induce an increase of the immune defence and an alteration of normal cellular parameter values. 2. C. gallina immune system has shown an interesting answer to benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) exposure, dose and time dependent, with a significant decrease of the expression and of the activity of one of the most important enzymes involved in the antioxidant defence in haemocytes and haemolymph. The data obtained are confirmed by several measurements of physiological parameters, that together with the decrease of the activity of 7-etossi-resourifine-O-deetilase (EROD linked to xenobiotic biotransformation processes) during exposure, underline the major effects of B[a]P action. The identification of basal levels of EROD supports the possible presence of CYP1A subfamily in the invertebrates, still today controversial, never identified previously in C. gallina and never isolated in the immune cells, as confirmed instead in this study with the identification of CYP1A-immunopositive protein (CYP1A-IPP). This protein could reveal a good biomarker at the base of a simple and quick method that could give clear information about specific pollutants presence, even at low concentrations in the environment where usually these organisms are fished before being commercialized. 3. In this experiment it has been evaluated the effect of the antibiotic chloramphenicol (CA) in an important species of commercial interest, Chamelea gallina. Chloramphenicol is a drug still used in some developing countries, also in veterinary field. Controls to evaluate its presence in the alimentary products of animal origin, can reveal ineffective whereas the concentration results to be below the limit of sensitivity of the instruments usually used in this type of analysis. Negative effects of CA towards the CYP1A- IPP proteins, underlined in this work, seem to be due to the attack of free radicals resultant from the action of the antibiotic. This brings to a meaningful alteration of the biotransformation mechanisms through the free radicals. It seems particularly interesting to pay attention to the narrow relationships in C. gallina, between SOD/CAT and CYP450 system, actively involved in detoxification mechanism, especially if compared with the few similar works today present about mollusc, a group that is composed by numerous species that enter in the food field and on which constant controls are necessary to evaluate in a rapid and effective way the presence of possible contaminations. 4. The investigations on fishes (Gadus morhua, and Salmo salar) and on a bivalve mollusc (Mytilus edulis) have allowed to evaluate different aspects related to the possibility to identify a biomarker for the evaluation of the health of organisms of food interest and consequently for the quality of the final product through 2DE methodologies. In the seafood field these techniques are currently used with a discreet success only for vertebrates (fishes), while in the study of the invertebrates (molluscs) there are a lot of difficulties. The results obtained in this work have underline several problems in the correct identification of the isolated proteins in animal organisms of which doesn’t currently exist a complete genomic sequence. This brings to attribute some identities on the base of the comparison with similar proteins in other animal groups, incurring in the possibility to obtain inaccurate data and above all discordant with those obtained on the same animals by other authors. Nevertheless the data obtained in this work after MALDI-ToF analysis, result however objective and the spectra collected could be again analyzed in the future after the update of genomic database related to the species studied. 4-A. The investigation about the presence of HSP70 isoforms directly induced by different phenomena of stress like B[a]P presence, has used bidimensional electrophoresis methods in C. gallina, that have allowed to isolate numerous protein on 2DE gels, allowing the collection of several spots currently in phase of analysis with MALDI-ToF-MS. The present preliminary work has allowed therefore to acquire and to improve important methodologies in the study of cellular parameters and in the proteomic field, that is not only revealed of great potentiality in the application in medical and veterinary field, but also in the field of the inspection of the foods with connections to the toxicology and the environmental pollution. Such study contributes therefore to the search of rapid and new methodologies, that can increase the inspective strategies, integrating themselves with those existing, but improving at the same time the general background of information related to the state of health of the considered animal organism, with the possibility, still hypothetical, to replace in particular cases the employment of the traditional techniques in the alimentary field.

La governance della società di capitale a base familiare: "Protocolo Familiar" e Patti di Famiglia

Family businesses have acquired a very specific gravity in the economy of occidental countries, generating most of the employment and the richness for the last ages. In Spain Family Businesses represent the 65% about the total of enterprises with 1,5 million companies. They give employment to 8 million people, the 80% of the private employment and develop the 65% of the Spanish GNP (Gross National Product). Otherwise, the family business needs a complete law regulation that gives satisfaction to their own necessities and challenges. These companies have to deal with national or international economic scene to assure their permanency and competitiveness. In fact, the statistics about family companies have a medium life of 35 years. European family businesses success their successor process between a 10 and 25%. It’s said: first generation makes, second generation stays, third generation distributes. In that sense, the Recommendation of the European Commission of December 7º 1994 about the succession of the small and medium companies has reformed European internal orders according to make easier successor process and to introduce practices of family companies’ good government. So, the Italian law, under the 14th Law, February 2006, has reformed its Covil Code, appearing a new concept, called “Patto di famiglia”, wich abolish the prohibition as laid dwon in the 458 article about successors’ agreements, admitting the possibility that testator guarantees the continuity of the company or of the family society, giving it, totally or in part, to one or various of its descendents. On other hand, Spain has promulgated the 17th Royal Decree (9th February 2007), that governs the publicity of family agreements (Protocolos familiars). These “protocolo familiar” (Family Agreement) are known as accord of wills, consented and accepted unanimously of all the family members and the company, taking into account recommendations and practices of family company’s good government.

Impatto ambientale dei rifiuti e degli sprechi agroalimentari in Europa e in Italia

Nonostante il fatto che una gran parte del mondo viva ancora oggi a livelli di sussistenza, i dati in nostro possesso ci indicano che le attività umane stanno esaurendo le risorse ambientali del pianeta. La causa di questo eccessivo sfruttamento delle risorse è da ricercare nei pattern non sostenibili di produzione e consumo dei paesi sviluppati. La preoccupazione per le conseguenze sull'ambiente e la lotta al cambiamento climatico hanno posto le politiche ambientali al centro dell'attenzione internazionale. Il Protocollo di Kyoto e la Commissione Europea hanno stabilito degli obiettivi di riduzione delle emissioni di gas serra, rispettivamente del 12% entro il 2012 e del 20% entro il 2020. All'interno del Protocollo di Kyoto l'obiettivo per l'Italia è ridurre del 6,5% le emissioni di gas serra nazionali rispetto al 1990. Le politiche mirate alla riduzione delle emissioni di gas serra hanno in genere come obiettivo gli impianti energetici e i trasporti. Poca attenzione viene data alla filiera agroalimentare pur sapendo che l'agricoltura ha un forte impatto sull'ambiente e recenti studi stimano che circa il 50% del cibo prodotto viene perso o buttato via dalla produzione al consumo. Alla luce di questi dati, il mio lavoro di tesi ha avuto come obiettivo quello di quantificare i rifiuti e gli sprechi agroalimentari in Europa e in Italia e stimare l'impatto ambientale associato. I dati raccolti in questa tesi mettono in evidenza l'importanza di migliorare l'efficienza della filiera agroalimentare per ridurre l'impatto ambientale nazionale e rispettare gli accordi internazionali sulla lotta ai cambiamenti climatici.

Interventi normativi, interni ed uniformi, dettati dalle nuove esigenze e dai nuovi quesiti posti dalla modernizzazione dei traffici, con particolare riferimento al trasporto containerizzato e multimodale

Come si evince dal titolo della tesi, la ricerca effettuata dal presente candidato nel corso del dottorato di ricerca ha avuto ad oggetto lo studio della materia relativa ai trasporti nell’ambito di diversi sistemi giuridici europei, con particolare attenzione ai risvolti di carattere pratico che l’interpretazione delle normative uniformi poteva produrre nell’ambito delle diverse giurisdizioni nonché alle diverse impostazioni e alla variegata gamma di soluzioni interpretative che nell’ambito di problemi simili possono essere adottate a seconda che una stessa questione venga discussa in un ordinamento piuttosto che in un altro. Dall’avvento del trasporto marittimo di containers alla necessità di disciplinare l’intera materia attraverso una normativa multimodale il passo è estremamente breve, posto che, proprio in considerazione delle caratteristiche proprie del trasporto containerizzato, gli aventi diritto al carico sono principalmente interessati al completamente del trasferimento door-to-door inteso nella sua globalità, piuttosto che al buon esito del trasporto sulla singola tratta marittima. Il progetto di revisione delle Regole dell’Aja-Visby adottato dall’United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (Uncitral) e il Comité Maritime International (CMI) costituisce per definizione un progetto limitato ad un trasporto multimodale comprendente necessariamente una tratta marittima, ma rappresenta comunque un interessante banco di prova per valutare la funzionalità di strumenti di recente impiego, come ad esempio i cosiddetti e-documents, concetto peraltro già inserito nel progetto UNCITRAL, anche se con scarsi elementi di reale novità rispetto alla tradizionale disciplina relativa ai documenti cartacei. Proprio la parte relativa ai documenti e titoli di viaggio merita particolare attenzione soprattutto in riferimento alle problematiche connesse al traffico containerizzato, con particolare riferimento al concetto di transhipment, e alla conseguente necessità che la polizza garantisca al legittimo portatore una copertura completa sull’intero viaggio della merce, oltre a dargli la possibilità di individuare agevolmente la propria controparte contrattuale, e cioè il vettore.

La fusión transfronteriza de sociedades en el derecho europeo.

La libertad de establecimiento y la movilidad de las empresas juegan un papel fundamental en el proceso comunitario de integración. Las empresas buscan nuevas formas de cooperación e integración que les permitan ocupar cuotas de mercado cada vez más importantes. De entre las modalidades de integración y cooperación que tienen a su disposición, la fusión transfronteriza de sociedades es, sin duda, una de las más relevantes. Es evidente que las fusiones de sociedades pertenecientes a Estados miembros distintos podrían tener una enorme importancia en el proceso de integración del mercado único. Sin embargo, la posibilidad de llevar a cabo con éxito una fusión transfronteriza en el ámbito comunitario era improbable hasta época reciente. Dos tipos de impedimentos la dificultaban: por una parte, obstáculos a la libertad de establecimiento por parte de los ordenamientos jurídicos de los Estados miembros; por otro, obstáculos de Derecho internacional privado. En cambio, hoy la mayor parte de estos impedimentos han sido superados gracias, en primer lugar, al progresivo reconocimiento del derecho de establecimiento de las sociedades por el Tribunal de Justicia, y en segundo, a la importante Directiva 2005/56/CE relativa a las fusiones transfronterizas de sociedades de capital. Esta Directiva impone a los Estados miembros una serie de normas de mínimos de derecho material a fin de armonizar la tutela de los intereses de los sujetos implicados más débiles (sobre todo, los trabajadores y los socios). De igual manera, establece una serie de normas de conflicto para resolver la cuestión de la ley aplicable a las fusiones transfronterizas. Este trabajo tiene como objetivo principal valorar la relevancia de los pronunciamientos del Tribunal de Justicia y de las actuaciones del legislador europeo orientados a impedir las restricciones a las fusiones transfronterizas de sociedades en el territorio comunitario.

Sicurezza dei prodotti alimentari e la responsabilità civile nell'Unione europea e negli Stati Uniti: tecniche a confronto

Le profonde trasformazioni che hanno interessato l’industria alimentare, unitamente alle accresciute capacità delle scienze mediche ed epidemiologiche di individuare nessi causali tra il consumo di determinate sostanze e l’insorgere di patologie, hanno imposto al legislatore di intervenire nella materia della c.d. sicurezza alimentare mettendo in atto sistemi articolati e complessi tesi a tutelare la salute dei consociati. Quest’ultimo obiettivo viene perseguito, da un lato, mediante disposizioni di natura pubblicistica e di carattere preventivo e, dall’altro lato, dallo strumento della responsabilità civile. Le due prospettive di tutela della salute delle persone costituiscono parti distinte ma al tempo stesso fortemente integrate in una logica unitaria. Questa prospettiva emerge chiaramente nel sistema statunitense: in quel ordinamento la disciplina pubblicistica della sicurezza degli alimenti – definita dalla Food and Drug Administration – costituisce un punto di riferimento imprescindibile anche quando si tratta di stabilire se un prodotto alimentare è difettoso e se, di conseguenza, il produttore è chiamato a risarcire i danni che scaturiscono dal suo utilizzo. L’efficace sinergia che si instaura tra la dimensione pubblicistica del c.d. Public Enforcement e quella risarcitoria (Private Enforcement) viene ulteriormente valorizzata dalla presenza di efficaci strumenti di tutela collettiva tra i quali la class action assume una importanza fondamentale. Proprio muovendo dall’analisi del sistema statunitense, l’indagine si appunta in un primo momento sull’individuazione delle lacune e delle criticità che caratterizzano il sistema nazionale e, più in generale quello comunitario. In un secondo momento l’attenzione si focalizza sull’individuazione di soluzioni interpretative e de iure condendo che, anche ispirandosi agli strumenti di tutela propri del diritto statunitense, contribuiscano a rendere maggiormente efficace la sinergia tra regole preventive sulla sicurezza alimentare e regole risarcitorie in materia di responsabilità del produttore.

Access to climate justice: the main procedural hurdles, and possible solutions, within the italian legal framework and the IBA Model Statute

The thesis deals with standing and justiciability in climate litigation against governments and the private sector. The first part addresses the impacts of climate change on human rights, the major developments in international climate law, and the historical reasons for climate litigation. The second part analyses several cases, divided into categories. It then draws to a comparative conclusion with regard to each category. The third part deals with the Italian legal tradition on standing and justiciability – starting from the historical roots of such rules. The fourth part introduces the ‘Model Statute’ drafted by the International Bar Association, arguing that the 'ratio legis' of this proposal could be implemented in Italy or the EU. The thesis develops arguments, based on the existing legal framework, to help plaintiffs establish standing and justiciability in proceedings pending before Italian courts. It further proposes the idea that 'citizen suits' are consistent with the Italian and EU legal tradition and that the EU could rely on citizen suits to privately enforce its climate law and policies under the ‘European Green Deal.’

Studi sulla donna come soggetto attivo del reato nel diritto romano

La ricerca si prefigge di indagare sulla donna che commette reato nel corso dell’intera esperienza giuridica romana. Attraverso l’analisi delle fonti, con speciale riferimento a quelle letterarie, vengono analizzati i singoli illeciti in cui la donna stessa poteva assumere la qualifica di soggetto attivo, che danno luogo a un nutrito catalogo di fattispecie attinenti alla sfera sessuale, per quanto non manchino casi di maiestas e, più in generale, di cospirazione contro il principe. Nella presente ricerca si tenta dunque di investigare, proprio a partire dalla peculiare condizione riconosciuta alla donna all’interno della società romana, la sua dimensione ‘pubblica’, che sarebbe stata lesa con la commissione dell’illecito giacché la rea, in questo modo, avrebbe sovente compromesso un valore superindividuale, ossia la pudicitia. È proprio la lesione di siffatto principio, tale da assumere un ruolo centrale nel quadro dell’etica sessuale degli antichi romani, a giustificare la repressione degli illeciti femminili nella forma del crimen: non deve dunque meravigliare che la mulier, venuta meno all’onore familiare, sia sanzionata pubblicamente, potendosi intendere i reati dalla stessa commessi alla stregua di ‘attentati alla res publica’.