Ancestry of pink disease (Infantile Acrodynia) identified as a risk factor for autism spectrum disorders

Pink disease (infantile acrodynia) was especially prevalent in the first half of the 20th century. Primarily attributed to exposure to mercury (Hg) commonly found in teething powders, the condition was developed by approximately 1 in 500 exposed children. The differential risk factor was identified as an idiosyncratic sensitivity to Hg. Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have also been postulated to be produced by Hg. Analogous to the pink disease experience, Hg exposure is widespread yet only a fraction of exposed children develop an ASD, suggesting sensitivity to Hg may also be present in children with an ASD. The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that individuals with a known hypersensitivity to Hg (pink disease survivors) may be more likely to have descendants with an ASD. Five hundred and twenty-two participants who had previously been diagnosed with pink disease completed a survey on the health outcomes of their descendants. The prevalence rates of ASD and a variety of other clinical conditions diagnosed in childhood (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, epilepsy, Fragile X syndrome, and Down syndrome) were compared to well-established general population prevalence rates. The results showed the prevalence rate of ASD among the grandchildren of pink disease survivors (1 in 25) to be significantly higher than the comparable general population prevalence rate (1 in 160). The results support the hypothesis that Hg sensitivity may be a heritable/genetic risk factor for ASD.

Bacterial lessons on organelle division

Mitochondria and chloroplasts arose from bacterial endosymbionts about a billion years ago. This ancestry is now showing us how these organelles divide in modem cells.

Phylogenetic relationships of the globally distributed freshwater prawn genus Macrobrachium (Crustacea: Decapoda: Palaemonidae): biogeography, taxonomy, and the convergent evolution of abbreviated larval development

There has hitherto been little research into evolutionary and taxonomic relationships amongst species of the freshwater prawn genus Macrobrachium Bate across its global distribution. Previous work by the authors demonstrated that the endemic Australian species did not evolve from a single ancestral lineage. To examine whether other regional Macrobrachium faunas also reflect this pattern of multiple origins, the phylogeny of 30 Macrobrachium species from Asia, Central/South America and Australia was inferred from mitochondrial 16S rRNA sequences. Phylogenetic relationships demonstrate that, despite some evidence for regional diversification, Australia, Asia and South America clearly contain Macrobrachium species that do not share a common ancestry, suggesting that large-scale dispersal has been a major feature of the evolutionary history of the genus. The evolution of abbreviated larval development (ALD), associated with the transition from an estuarine into a purely freshwater lifecycle, was also mapped onto the phylogeny and was shown to be a relatively homoplasious trait and not taxonomically informative. Other taxonomic issues, as well as the evolutionary origins of Macrobrachium, are also discussed.

Identity in multicultural societies: who do we think we are?

This paper examines identity issues in multicultural Australia. In its extreme, negative form, assumptions that certain characteristics apply to all members of an ethnic group can be attributed to racism. However, the belief that individuals who share the same ethnic background have similar needs, interests and perceptions is also reflected in business, government policy and academic research. Often, ethnic groupings used for research and policy formulation are very broad and fail to take into account within-group differences. The criteria used to assess an individuals membership of an ethnic group can be problematic. Criteria based purely on objective measures such as country of birth or ethnic ancestry do not take into account acculturation processes or the degree to which individuals consider themselves to be 'ethnic '. These objective measures are complicated further as individuals may have ethnic roots from multiple countries depending on their family composition over several generations. This theory-focused paper proposes that ethnic identity should be viewed as a subjective phenomenon where individuals are likely to align themselves with the ethnic background to which they most identify. This has implications for research and policy making in multicultural societies.

Generation of statements for the development of clinical indicators for mental heath nursing in New Zealand : achieving a bicultural focus

Aim : In this paper, the first of 4 stages of a large study aiming to develop culturally and clinically valid clinical indicators to flag the achievement of mental health nursing standards of practice in New Zealand are described.

Methods : A bicultural design was employed throughout the research project to ensure that nurses' views of practice and the cultural differences between New Zealand's indigenous Maori and non-Maori peoples could be identified. Accordingly, separate focus groups of Maori- and non-Maori-experienced mental health nurses were asked to develop lists of statementd reflective of the Australian and New Zealand College of Mental Health Nurses' Standards of Practice in New Zealand.

Results : The focus group participants produces 473 statements, which were synthesized into 190 clinical indicator statements. In keeping with the bicultural research design, Maori and non-Maori data were analysed separately until the data were merged to provide a single set of indicator statements. Although both Maori and non-Maori groups wrote statements relevant to clinical practice, there was a difference in the way the 2 groups addressed cultural issues. The Maori focus group wrote statements about cultural issues for 4 of the 6 Standards of Practice, whereas the non-Maori focus group participants wrote statements about cultural issues for only the Standard focusing on cultural safety.

Conclusion : The research design of this project in mental health nursing was unique in that it sought the perspectives of both indigenous and non-indigenous nurses about quality mental health nursing practice related to the professional standards of practice. The involvement of Maori and non-Maori mental health nurses enhanced the cultural and clinical validity of the study and the obtained from it. The bicultural approach adopted for the study highlights the need for more mental health nursing research involving indigenous partners.

Evolutionary consequences of life history variation in galaxiid fish

This thesis examined genetic variation among populations of galaxiid fish of different life histories. Evidence of incipient speciation was found among several landlocked populations; however, little genetic differentiation was found among Australian coastal populations. Evidence was found to suggest a marine ancestry for galaxiids and several taxonomic revisions were suggested.

Variation in the gene coding for the M5 muscarinic receptor (CHRM5) influences cigarette dose but is not associated with dependence to drugs of addiction : evidence from a prospective population based cohort study of young adults

Background: The mesolimbic structures of the brain are important in the anticipation and perception of reward. Moreover, many drugs of addiction elicit their response in these structures. The M5 muscarinic receptor (M5R) is expressed in dopamine-containing neurones of the substantia nigra pars compacta and ventral tegmental area, and regulates the release of mesolimbic dopamine. Mice lacking M5R show a substantial reduction in both reward and withdrawal responses to morphine and cocaine. The CHRM5, the gene that codes for the M5R, is a strong biological candidate for a role in human addiction. We screened the coding and core promoter sequences of CHRM5 using denaturing high performance liquid chromatography to identify common polymorphisms. Additional polymorphisms within the coding and core promoter regions that were identified through dbSNP were validated in the test population. We investigated whether these polymorphisms influence substance dependence and dose in a cohort of 1947 young Australians.

Results: Analysis was performed on 815 participants of European ancestry who were interviewed at wave 8 of the cohort study and provided DNA. We observed a 26.8% increase in cigarette consumption in carriers of the rs7162140 T-allele, equating to 20.1 cigarettes per week (p=0.01). Carriers of the rs7162140 T-allele were also found to have nearly a 3-fold increased risk of developing cannabis dependence (OR=2.9 (95%CI 1.1-7.4); p=0.03).

Conclusion: Our data suggest that variation within the CHRM5 locus may play an important role in tobacco and cannabis but not alcohol addiction in European ancestry populations. This is the first study to show an association between CHRM5 and substance use in humans. These data support the further investigation of this gene as a risk factor in substance use and dependence.

Wings or winds : inferring bat migration in a stepping-stone archipelago

Eocene ocean currents and prevailing winds correlate with over-water dispersals of terrestrial mammals from Africa to Madagascar. Since the Early Miocene (about 23 Ma), these currents flowed in the reverse direction, from the Indian Ocean towards Africa. The Comoro Islands are equidistant between Africa and Madagascar and support an endemic land vertebrate fauna that shares recent ancestry predominantly with Madagascar. We examined whether gene flow in two Miniopterus bat species endemic to the Comoros and Madagascar correlates with the direction of current winds, using uni- and bi-parentally inherited markers with different evolutionary rates. Coalescence-based analyses of mitochondrial matrilines support a Pleistocene (approximately 180 000 years ago) colonization event from Madagascar west to the Comoros (distance: 300 km) in the predicted direction. However, nuclear microsatellites show that more recent gene flow is restricted to a few individuals flying against the wind, from Grande Comore to Anjouan (distance: 80 km).

Developing an exploratory framework linking Australian Aboriginal peoples' connection to country and concepts of wellbeing

Aboriginal people across Australia suffer significant health inequalities compared with the non-Indigenous population. Evidence indicates that inroads can be made to reduce these inequalities by better understanding social and cultural determinants of health, applying holistic notions of health and developing less rigid definitions of wellbeing. The following article draws on qualitative research on Victorian Aboriginal peoples' relationship to their traditional land (known as Country) and its link to wellbeing, in an attempt to tackle this. Concepts of wellbeing, Country and nature have also been reviewed to gain an understanding of this relationship. An exploratory framework has been developed to understand this phenomenon focusing on positive (e.g., ancestry and partnerships) and negative (e.g., destruction of Country and racism) factors contributing to Aboriginal peoples' health. The outcome is an explanation of how Country is a fundamental component of Aboriginal Victorian peoples' wellbeing and the framework articulates the forces that impact positively and negatively on this duality. This review is critical to improving not only Aboriginal peoples' health but also the capacity of all humanity to deal with environmental issues like disconnection from nature and urbanisation.

Whose culture, where and why? – Identity, culture and artistic expression

This research addresses how the visual and artistic expression represents my cultures and gendered identities. My journey mapped cultural inheritances, ancestry and postcolonial influences from home country, my childhood memories, life experiences and migration transitions to Australia. A series of my artworks represent cultural markers, a sense of belonging, nostalgia and challenges of relocation. Findings support how art expression can forge ‘affective links’ and develop pedagogies for intercultural understanding through Art Education.

Facilitated communication and authorship: a systematic review

Facilitated Communication (FC) is a technique whereby individuals with disabilities and communication impairments allegedly select letters by typing on a keyboard while receiving physical support, emotional encouragement, and other communication supports from facilitators. The validity of FC stands or falls on the question of who is authoring the typed messages--the individual with a disability or the facilitator. The International Society for Augmentative and Alternative Communication (ISAAC) formed an Ad Hoc Committee on FC and charged this committee to synthesize the evidence base related to this question in order to develop a position statement. The purpose of this paper is to report this synthesis of the extant peer-reviewed literature on the question of authorship in FC. A multi-faceted search was conducted including electronic database searches, ancestry searches, and contacting selected authors. The authors considered synopses of systematic reviews, and systematic reviews, which were supplemented with individual studies not included in any prior reviews. Additionally, documents submitted by the membership were screened for inclusion. The evidence was classified into articles that provided (a) quantitative experimental data related to the authorship of messages, (b) quantitative descriptive data on the output generated through FC without testing of authorship, (c) qualitative descriptive data on the output generated via FC without testing of authorship, and (d) anecdotal reports in which writers shared their perspectives on FC. Only documents with quantitative experimental data were analyzed for authorship. Results indicated unequivocal evidence for facilitator control: messages generated through FC are authored by the facilitators rather than the individuals with disabilities. Hence, FC is a technique that has no validity.

A primer on phylogenetic generalised least squares

Phylogenetic generalised least squares (PGLS) is one of the most commonly employed phylogenetic comparative methods. The technique, a modification of generalised least squares, uses knowledge of phylogenetic relationships to produce an estimate of expected covariance in cross-species data. Closely related species are assumed to have more similar traits because of their shared ancestry and hence produce more similar residuals from the least squares regression line. By taking into account the expected covariance structure of these residuals, modified slope and intercept estimates are generated that can account for interspecific autocorrelation due to phylogeny. Here, we provide a basic conceptual background to PGLS, for those unfamiliar with the approach. We describe the requirements for a PGLS analysis and highlight the packages that can be used to implement the method. We show how phylogeny is used to calculate the expected covariance structure in the data and how this is applied to the generalised least squares regression equation. We demonstrate how PGLS can incorporate information about phylogenetic signal, the extent to which closely related species truly are similar, and how it controls for this signal appropriately, thereby negating concerns about unnecessarily ‘correcting’ for phylogeny. In addition to discussing the appropriate way to present the results of PGLS analyses, we highlight some common misconceptions about the approach and commonly encountered problems with the method. These include misunderstandings about what phylogenetic signal refers to in the context of PGLS (residuals errors, not the traits themselves), and issues associated with unknown or uncertain phylogeny.

Is change in global self-rated health associated with change in affiliation with a primary care provider? Findings from a longitudinal study from New Zealand

To investigate the association of self-rated health and affiliation with a primary care provider (PCP) in New Zealand.
Methods

We used data from a New Zealand panel study of 22,000 adults. The main exposure was self-rated health, and the main outcome measure was affiliation with a PCP. Fixed effects conditional logistic models were used to control for observed time-varying and unobserved time-invariant confounding.
Results

In any given wave, the odds of being affiliated with a PCP were higher for those in good and fair/poor health relative to those in excellent health. While affiliation for Europeans increased as reported health declined, the odds of being affiliated were lower for Māori respondents reporting very good or good health relative to those in excellent health. No significant differences in the association by age or gender were observed.
Conclusions

Our data support the hypothesis that those in poorer health are more likely to be affiliated with a PCP. Variations in affiliation for Māori could arise for several reasons, including differences in care-seeking behaviour and perceived need of care. It may also mean that the message about the benefits of primary health care is not getting through equally to all population groups.

Cultural and social factors and quality of life of Maori in advanced age. Te puawaitanga o nga tapuwae kia ora tonu - Life and living in advanced age: a cohort study in New Zealand (LiLACS NZ)

AIM: To establish 1) the socioeconomic and cultural profile and 2) correlates of quality of life (QOL) of Maori in advanced age. METHOD: A cross sectional survey of a population based cohort of Maori aged 80-90 years, participants in LiLACS NZ, in the Rotorua and Bay of Plenty region of New Zealand. Socioeconomic and cultural engagement characteristics were established by personal interview and QOL was assessed by the SF-12. RESULTS: In total 421 (56%) participated and 267 (63%) completed the comprehensive interview. Maori lived with high deprivation areas and had received a poor education in the public system. Home ownership was high (81%), 64% had more than 3 children still living and social support was present for practical tasks and emotional support in 82%. A need for more practical help was reported by 21%. Fifty-two percent of the participants used te reo Maori me nga tikanga (Maori language and culture) daily. One in five had experienced discrimination and one in five reported colonisation affecting their life today. Greater frequency of visits to marae/sacred gathering places was associated with higher physical health-related QOL. Unmet need for practical help was associated with lower physical health-related QOL. Lower mental health-related QOL was associated with having experienced discrimination. CONCLUSION: Greater language and cultural engagement is associated with higher QOL for older Maori and unmet social needs and discrimination are associated with lower QOL.