Ethical relativism vs absolutism : research implications

Purpose – The constructs of relativism and absolutism have a significant role to play in the development of ethical theory; however, they are commonly simplified in their depictions and are philosophically more complex than we give them credit for. The purpose of this paper is to undertake an in-depth examination of ethical relativity and ethical absolutism before concluding with a discussion of which research implications warrant further investigation.
Design/methodology/approach – A descriptive, historical, anthological approach has been taken.
Findings – Ethical relativism is regrettably subject to a proliferation of related terminology and, in many instances with different meanings ascribed to similar terms. In addition, ethical relativity appears to attract different research perspectives that are heavily dependent on their academic origins. A clear distinction needs to be made between ethical and situational relativity. It is suggested that relativism is present in the process of moral justification and that ethical relativism should be analyzed from three levels: the individual level, the role and group level, and the cultural levels. The over-riding objection to ethical relativism rests on the consequences of accepting relativism, which undermines the existence and strength of global moral standards and the inherent positioning of ethical absolutism. Absolutism does not deny the existence of multiple moral practices evident around the world, but proposes that variations in ethical actions could still be rooted in common universal moral standards based on our requirements as human beings and the necessities of long-term survival.
Research limitations/implications – The ensuing discussions of relativism and absolutism open up a rich vein of research opportunities and suggest caution is required in regard to research methodologies. From a methodological perspective, care needs to be taken. For example, using hypothetical ethical dilemmas that are often unrelated to a specific industry or cultural setting has resulted in many researchers observing situational relativity rather than true ethical relativity.
Originality/value – This paper specifically examines whether there are differences in underlying and basic moral standards even though similarities in ethical behaviour have been determined, or whether differing ethical actions could, as the absolutists believe, originate from common universal standards despite apparent differences in perceptions and actions across cultures.

Dignity, virtue and punishment : the ethical justification of disciplinary segregation in prisoners

In this paper I reflect on Bersot and Arrigo’s argument that virtue ethics provides a sound ethical theory to guide judicial decisions concerning the legitimacy of subjecting mentality disordered offenders to long-term disciplinary solitary confinement. I expand on three issues evident in the Bersot and Arrigo paper: (1) the nature and justification of punishment; (2) the concept of dignity and its relevance to mentally disordered offenders placed in disciplinary solitary confinement, and (3) the nature and scope of virtue theory in the criminal justice context.

Cycles of genocide, stories of denial : Atom Egoyan's Ararat

This article focuses on Atom Egoyan's Ararat and explores how, through a convoluted narrative structure, Egoyan grapples with denial of the Armenian Genocide and the consequences of those denials for present generations—both Turkish and Armenian—illuminated in the film as an extension of the genocide. Egoyan uses a film-within-a-film to move beyond a popular definition of genocide as mass killing alone and links the understanding of stories, truths, and perspectives in everyday life to the dehumanizing acts of genocide. Employing the philosopher Emmanuel Levinas’ ethical theory of the Other (the ethical) and philosophical understandings of ontology (dehumanization) to illuminate the genocide and its ongoing denial, this article contends that Egoyan's focus on the generations of genocide survivors points to the ethical responsibility to one another that underlies everyday lives and sits at the heart of what is absent in the acts of genocide.

The ethics of care and treatment of sex offenders

The ethics of care acknowledges the importance of establishing and maintaining practices that help people to meet their needs, develop and protect basic capabilities for problem solving, emotional functioning, and social interaction, and avoid pain and suffering. In this article, we explore the contribution an ethics of care perspective can make to work with sex offenders. First, we briefly describe five classes of ethical problems evident in work with sex offenders. Second, the concept of care is defined and a justification for a version of care theory provided. Third, we apply the care ethical theory to ethical issues with sex offenders and demonstrate its value in responding to the five classes of problems outlined earlier.

Virtue ethics, CSR and corporate citizenship

The Global Alliance for Public Relations and Communication Management values the dignity of the individual; human rights; and equal opportunity. Its Code of Ethics declares a professional’s duty to broader society. The code advocates education to reinforce this ethical outlook. This paper contributes a specific approach towards the practitioner’s ethical understanding. It enlists the critique of Alasdair MacIntyre who strongly criticises much conventional ethical theory. MacIntyre’s teleological approach is joined with a notion of a hierarchy of narratives of ethical expectations in an argument which counsels that public relations must always operate at the highest level of these narratives.

A novel approach to priority-setting for HIV prevention among adults in Uganda

 The study used economic and ethical theory, empirical evidence and local stakeholders views to develop a checklist of features of an ideal approach to priority-setting. This was used to determine the ideal approach for priority-setting for HIV prevention in Uganda. The Assessing Cost-Effectiveness (ACE) approach was determined to be the ideal approach using the checklist developed. A pilot study using the approach determined that in Uganda, blood safety and HIV counselling interventions are the most cost-effective, equitable and acceptable interventions. Mass media interventions were the least cost-effective and affordable, had a weak evidence base but were more acceptable. On the other hand interventions targeting Most-at-risk-populations were cost-effective but least acceptable. The study demonstrates the importance of balancing technical rigor and due process to ensure buy-in by stakeholders.

Use of moral theory to analyse the ethical codes of built environment professional organisations: A case study of the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to discuss the use of moral theory as a philosophical analytical framework for built environment organisations' ethical codes of practice. The identified moral theories under consideration are “deontology”, “consequentialism” and “virtue ethics”.

Design/methodology/approach – The paper uses a case study to examine the use of moral theory to explain the ethical codes of practice of built environment professional organisations. The chosen organisation is the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS). The approach for conducting the case study is through semi-structured interviews with experienced RICS members which gather views on the application of moral theory to explain the RICS ethical principles.

Findings – The case study revealed that there are mixed views on the use of moral theory to explain the RICS code of practice. The general view is that deontology is the most suitable theory to explain the fact that the work or process has been undertaken correctly. On the other hand, there is also a view amongst senior professionals that virtue ethics is most appropriate as it addresses the importance of both the correct “result” and the correct “process”.

Research limitations/implications – The paper uses a case study approach to examine the ethical code of one built environment professional organisation. This research does not therefore claim empirical generalisation but instead provides illustrations on the use of moral theory to explain the code of practice of a built environment professional organisation. The paper is based on a series of interviews. The findings should be understood as the aggregated opinions of the interviewees.

Originality/value – The paper makes an original contribution to existing literature on the theoretical analysis of codes of practice for built environment professional organisations. It describes research which is the first to use moral theory as a framework for analysing rules of conduct of built environment professional organisations.

The Aristotelian spoudaios as ethical exemplar in Finnis’s natural law theory

One provocative but frequently overlooked feature of John Finnis’s natural law theory is its appeal to the normative role of the Aristotelian spoudaios (the mature person of practical reasonableness). Finnis’s account of the basic requirements of practical reasonableness and defense of the methodological device of “focal meaning” both have recourse to Aristotle’s claim that, in ethics and politics, things should be judged in terms of how they appear to the mature practically reasonable person. The current paper examines the normative role played by the spoudaios within Finnis’s natural law theory and provides a defense of that role against the objection that it lacks justificatory force because it is dependent upon circular reasoning. Section one contextualizes Finnis’s use of the spoudaios by considering its Aristotelian origins and also sketches some reasons for its demise in subsequent moral theory. This serves as the basis for an assessment in section two of whether Finnis’s employment of the spoudaios as an ethical exemplar conflates explanation and justification, and therefore culminates in decisionism. The conclusion of the paper is that Finnis’s recourse to the spoudaios is not viciously circular, because it is grounded in the reflexive and dialogical mode of justification proper to ethical enquiry.

Ethical challenges associated with providing continence care in residential aged care facilities : findings from a grounded theory study

A person-centred approach to care in residential aged care facilities should uphold residents’ rights to independence, choice, decision-making, participation, and control over their lifestyle. Little is known about how nurses and personal care assistants working in these facilities uphold these ideals when assisting residents maintain continence and manage incontinence. The overall aim of the study was to develop a grounded theory to describe and explain how Australian residents of aged care facilities have their continence care needs determined, delivered and communicated. This paper presents and discusses a subset of the findings about the ethical challenges nurses and personal care assistants encountered whilst providing continence care. Grounded theory methodology was used for in-depth interviews with 18 nurses and personal care assistants who had experience of providing, supervising or assessing continence care in any Australian residential aged care facility, and to analyse 88 hours of field observations in two facilities. Data generation and analysis occurred simultaneously using open coding, theoretical coding, and selective coding, until data were saturated. While addressing the day-to-day needs of residents who needed help to maintain continence and/or manage incontinence, nurses and personal care assistants struggled to enable residents to exercise choice and autonomy. The main factor that contributed to this problem was that the fact that nurses and personal care assistants had to respond to multiple, competing, and conflicting expectations about residents’ care needs. This situation was compounded by workforce constraints, inadequate information about residents’ care needs, and an unpredictable work environment. Providing continence care accentuated the ethical tensions associated with caregiving. Nurses’ and personal care assistants’ responses were mainly characterised by highly protective behaviours towards residents. Underlying structural factors that hinder high quality continence care to residents of aged care facilities should be urgently addressed.

In whose interests? The best interests principle under ethical scrutiny

This paper critically examines the best interests principle and its role in making decisions about intensive care treatment. In current practice the best interests principle is sometimes relied upon to guide decision making in circumstances when the patient is incompetent, although it is intrinsically linked to inconsistent assumptions about what is meant by quality of life. This situation means that there is potential that moral errors will be made that may result in an unwanted extension of life for some individuals or the premature death of others.

It is difficult to justify such decision making on ethical grounds. A greater understanding of the best interests principle, and consequently the concept of quality of life, is needed in order to ensure that decision making about intensive care is ethically defensible. It is argued that an ideal theory of quality of life provides an appropriate framework for best interests decisions, and that the decision making process ought to, whenever possible, involve the patient's close family.

Changing vistas in public relations theory

Contemporary theorists are opening new ways to think about public relations. Public relations textbook authors have hitherto borrowed theories from the adjacent disciplines of communication, psychology, sociology, and organisation studies. At the end of the twentieth century, J. Grunig’s four-model concept of public relations was the only modern theoretical approach that could be said to have originated from within public relations scholarship. And as we will see, even J. Grunig’s perspective is rooted in political theory. But the 21st century’s burgeoning critical and professional interest in ethical public relations has produced a flurry of discipline-specific, theoretical initiatives.