Fundamental Movement Skill Interventions in Youth: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND
Fundamental movement skill (FMS) proficiency is positively associated with physical activity and fitness levels. The objective of this study was to systematically review evidence for the benefits of FMS interventions targeting youth.

METHODS
A search with no date restrictions was conducted across 7 databases. Studies included any school-, home-, or community-based intervention for typically developing youth with clear intent to improve FMS proficiency and that reported statistical analysis of FMS competence at both preintervention and at least 1 other postintervention time point. Study designs included randomized controlled trials (RCTs) using experimental and quasi-experimental designs and single group pre-post trials. Risk of bias was independently assessed by 2 reviewers.

RESULTS
Twenty-two articles (6 RCTs, 13 quasi-experimental trials, 3 pre-post trials) describing 19 interventions were included. All but 1 intervention were evaluated in primary/elementary schools. All studies reported significant intervention effects for ≥1 FMS. Meta-analyses revealed large effect sizes for overall gross motor proficiency (standardized mean difference [SMD] = 1.42, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.68–2.16, Z = 3.77, P < .0002) and locomotor skill competency (SMD = 1.42, 95% CI 0.56–2.27, Z = 3.25, P = .001). A medium effect size for object control skill competency was observed (SMD = 0.63, 95% CI 0.28–0.98, Z = 3.53, P = .0004). Many studies scored poorly for risk of bias items.

CONCLUSIONS
School- and community-based programs that include developmentally appropriate FMS learning experiences delivered by physical education specialists or highly trained classroom teachers significantly improve FMS proficiency in youth.

Development and validation of the Approach-Iron Skill Test for use in golf

The primary aim of this study was to develop and validate a golf-specific approach-iron test for use with elite and high-level amateur golfers. Elite (n=26) and high-level amateur (n=23) golfers were recruited for this study. The ‘Approach-Iron Skill Test’ requires players to hit a total of 27 shots. Specifically, three shots are hit at each of nine targets on a specially constructed driving range in a randomised order. A real-time launch monitor positioned behind the player, measured the carry distance for each of these shots. A scoring system was developed based on the percentage error index of each shot, meaning that 81 points was the maximum score possible (with a maximum of three points per shot). Two rounds of the test were performed. For both rounds of the test, elite-level golfers scored significantly higher than their high-level amateur counterparts (56.3±5.6 and 58.5±4.6 points versus 46.0±6.3 and 46.1±6.7 points, respectively) (P<0.05). For both elite and high-level players, 95% limits of agreement statistics also indicated that the test showed good test–retest reliability (2.1±7.9 and 0.2±10.8, respectively). Due to the clinimetric properties of the test, we conclude that the Approach-Iron Skill Test is suitable for further examination with the players examined in this study.

Occupational skill level and hazardous exposures among working Victorians

This paper examines the patterning of exposures to occupational hazards in relation to occupational skill level as a proxy for pay rate, testing the general hypothesis that exposures to occupational hazards increase in prevalence with decreasing skill level. A population-based telephone survey was conducted on a random sample of working Victorians (N = 1,101). A set of 10 indicators of exposure to occupational hazards were analysed individually and as a summary scale in multivariate regression models. A significant increasing trend in hazardous working conditions from the highest to lowest occupational skill level was observed, with those in lower skill level jobs twice as likely to be exposed as those at the highest skill level. This overall trend was driven primarily by higher exposure in the middle skill level group (technicians and skilled trades) as well as the lowest (labourers and elementary clerical), the two main bluecollar groups. Findings provided partial support for the hypothesised relationship.

Two tests of approach-iron golf skill and their ability to predict tournament performance

The aim of this study was to investigate the convergent and predictive validity of two skill tests that examine the ability of golfers to hit accurate approach-iron shots. Twenty-four high-level golfers (handicap = 2.6 ± 1.7) performed the Nine-Ball Skills Test (assesses the ability to shape/control ball trajectory with high accuracy) and the Approach-Iron Skill Test (assesses the ability to hit straight shots from varying distances with high accuracy). Participants then completed at least eight rounds of tournament golf over the following 90 days and reported an indicator of approach-iron accuracy (per cent error index). A moderate correlation (r = 0.50, P < 0.05) was noted between scores for both tests. Generalised estimating equations, using two covariates (lie of the ball and distance to hole), were used to determine model fit and the amount of variance explained for tournament per cent error index. Results showed that the Approach-Iron Skill Test was the slightly stronger predictor of on-course per cent error index. With both test scores considered together, a minimal amount of additional variance was explained. These findings suggest that either of the tests used individually or combined may be used to predict tournament approach iron performance in high-level golfers.

Development and measurement properties of a putting skill test for high-level golf

Despite a recent increase in the amount of research investigating performance in golf, a comprehensive putting skill test has not been reported in the peer-reviewed literature. In this study, the Golf Australia Putting Test (GAPT) was developed and a series of measurement properties were assessed. Elite (n = 18) and high-level amateur (HLA; n = 22) participants completed six single putts from various areas on six concentric circles (circle radii = 0.9, 1.5, 3.0, 4.6, 6.1 and 7.6 m). Using a scoring system that rewarded participants for holing putts from longer distances, the maximum score from a single round of the test (i.e. 36 putts) was 27 points. After two rounds of the test were completed by all players, a subsample of participants (elite, n = 15; HLA, n = 7) had their putting performance recorded during tournament play for a period of 90 days to assess criterion (predictive) validity of the test. The reliability, sensitivity and discriminative validity of the GAPT were also assessed. Better agreement between Rounds 1 and 2 scores was noted in the elite group, whilst reliability values were similar for both groups. Further, the GAPT scores were shown to predict players from the elite and high-ability groups with a low classification error. An equation for predicting on-course performance from GAPT scores was also developed. Findings from this study indicate that the GAPT is a valid and reliable tool for high-level players and the GAPT may be used for player evaluation in the field.

Reliability of the pictorial scale of perceived movement skill competence in 2 diverse samples of young children

The purpose was to determine the reliability of an instrument designed to assess young children's perceived movement skill competence in two diverse samples.