Issues of water supply and contemporary urban society: the case of Greater Amman, Jordan

Over the last two decades, Jordan has suffered a chronic water crisis, and is the tenth most water-scarce nation on Earth. Such water stress has been well illustrated in the case of Greater Amman, the capital, which has grown dramatically from a population of around 2000 in the 1920s, to 2.17 million today. One of the distinctive characteristics of the water supply regime of Greater Amman is that since 1987 it has been based on a system of rationing, with households receiving water once a week for various durations. Amman is highly polarized socio-economically, and by means of household surveys, both quantitative and qualitative, conducted in high- and low-income divisions of the city, a detailed empirical evaluation of the storage and use of water, the strategies used by households to manage water and overall satisfaction with water supply issues is provided in this paper, looking specifically at issues of social equity. The analysis demonstrates the social and economic costs of water rationing and consequent management to be high, as well as emphasizing that issues of water quality are of central importance to all consumers regardless of their socio-economic status within the city.

Contemporary social variations in household water use, management strategies and awareness under conditions of 'water stress': the case of Greater Amman Jordan

One of the distinctive characteristics of the water supply system of Greater Amman, the capital of Jordan, is that it has been based on a regime of rationing since 1987, with households receiving water once a week for various durations. This reflects the fact that while Amman's recent growth has been phenomenal, Jordan is one of the ten most water-scarce nations on earth. Amman is highly polarised socio-economically, and by means of household surveys conducted in both high- and low-income divisions of the city, the aim has been to provide detailed empirical evidence concerning the storage and use if water, the strategies used by households to manage water and overall satisfactions with water supply issues, looking specifically at issues of social equity. The analysis demonstrates the social costs of water rationing and consequent household management to be high, as well as emphasising that issues of water quality are of central importance to all consumers.

Studies on particulate matter (PM10) and its precursors over urban environment of Reading, UK

The extent to which airborne particles penetrate into the human respiratory system is determined mainly by their size, with possible health effects. The research over the scientific evidence of the role of airborne particles in adverse health effects has been intensified in recent years. In the present study, seasonal variations of PM10 and its relation with anthropogenic activities have been studied by using the data from UK National Air Quality Archive over Reading, UK. The diurnal variation of PM10 shows a morning peak during 7:00-10:00 LT and an evening peak during 19:00-22:00 LT. 3 The variation between 12:00 and 17:00 LT remains more or less steady for PM10 with the minimum value of similar to 16 mu g m(-3). PM10 and black smoke (BS) concentrations during weekdays were found to be high compared to weekends. A reduction in the concentration of PM10 has been found during the Christmas holidays compared to normal days during December. Seasonal variations of PM10 showed high values during spring compared to other seasons. A linear relationship has been found between PM10 and NO, during March, July, November and December suggesting that most of the PM10 is due to local traffic exhaust emissions. PM10 and SO2 concentrations showed positive correlation with the correlation coefficient of R-2 = 0.65 over the study area. Seasonal variations of SO2 and NOx showed high concentrations during winter and low concentrations during spring. Fraction of BS in PM10 has been found to be 50% during 2004 over the study area. (C) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Recognition of greater diversity of Bacillus species and related bacteria in human faeces

In a study looking at the culturable, aerobic Actinobacteria associated with the human gastrointestinal tract, the vast majority of isolates obtained from dried human faeces belonged to the genus Bacillus and related bacteria. A total of 124 isolates were recovered from the faeces of 10 healthy adult donors. 16S rRNA gene sequence analyses showed the majority belonged to the families Bacillaceae (n = 81) and Paenibacillaceae (n = 3), with Bacillus species isolated from all donors. Isolates tentatively identified as Bacillus clausii (n = 32) and B. licheniformis (n = 28) were recovered most frequently, with the genera Lysinibacillus, Ureibacillus, Oceanobacillus, Ornithinibacillus and Virgibacillus represented in some donors. Phenotypic data confirmed the identities of isolates belonging to well-characterized species. Representatives of the phylum Actinobacteria were recovered in much lower numbers (n = 11). Many of the bacilli exhibited antimicrobial activity against one or more strains of Clostridium difficile, C. perfringens, Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus, with some (n = 12) found to have no detectable cytopathic effect on HEp-2 cells. This study has revealed greater diversity within gut-associated aerobic spore-formers than previous studies, and suggests that bacilli with potential as probiotics could be isolated from the human gut.

How reward modulates mimicry: EMG evidence of greater automatic facial mimicry of more rewarding faces

Spontaneous mimicry is a marker of empathy. Conditions characterized by reduced spontaneous mimicry (e.g., autism) also display deficits in sensitivity to social rewards. We tested if spontaneous mimicry of socially rewarding stimuli (happy faces) depends on the reward value of stimuli in 32 typical participants. An evaluative conditioning paradigm was used to associate different reward values with neutral target faces. Subsequently, electromyographic activity over the Zygomaticus Major was measured whilst participants watched video clips of the faces making happy expressions. Higher Zygomaticus Major activity was found in response to happy faces conditioned with high reward versus low reward. Moreover, autistic traits in the general population modulated the extent of spontaneous mimicry of happy faces. This suggests a link between reward and spontaneous mimicry and provides a possible underlying mechanism for the reduced response to social rewards seen in autism.

Flooding tolerance in four 'Garrigue' landscape plants: implications for their future use in the urban landscapes of north-west Europe?

Within a changing climate, Mediterranean ‘Garrigue’ xerophytes are increasingly recommended as suitable urban landscape plants in north-west Europe, based on their capacity to tolerate high temperature and reduced water availability during summer. Such species, however, have a poor reputation for tolerating waterlogged soils; paradoxically a phenomenon that may also increase in north-west Europe due to predictions for both higher volumes of winter precipitation, and short, but intensive periods of summer rainfall. This study investigated flooding tolerance in four landscape ‘Garrigue’ species, Stachys byzantina, Cistus × hybridus, Lavandula angustifolia and Salvia officinalis. Despite evolving in a dry habitat, the four species tested proved remarkably resilient to flooding. All species survived 17 days flooding in winter, with Stachys and Lavandula also surviving equivalent flooding duration during summer. Photosynthesis and biomass production, however, were strongly inhibited by flooding although the most tolerant species, Stachys quickly restored its photosynthetic capacity on termination of flooding. Overall, survival rates were comparable to previous studies on other terrestrial (including wetland) species. Subsequent experiments using Salvia (a species we identified as ‘intermediate’ in tolerance) clearly demonstrated adaptations to waterlogging, e.g. acclimation against anoxia when pre-treated with hypoxia. Despite anecdotal information to the contrary, we found no evidence to suggest that these xerophytic species are particularly intolerant of waterlogging. Other climatic and biotic factors may restrict the viability and distribution of these species within the urban conurbations of north-west Europe, but we believe increased incidence of flooding per se should not preclude their consideration.

Schizophrenic urban reality: the changing urban landscapes of the Mediterranean region and developmental influences

This chapter considers aspects of urban design and associated identity of place that shifts over time and has to identify with aspects of economic pressures to develop as well as cultural concerns about change.

Kerb and urban increment of highly time-resolved trace elements in PM10, PM2.5 and PM1.0 winter aerosol in London during ClearfLo 2012

Ambient concentrations of trace elements with 2 h time resolution were measured in PM10–2.5, PM2.5–1.0 and PM1.0–0.3 size ranges at kerbside, urban background and rural sites in London during winter 2012. Samples were collected using rotating drum impactors (RDIs) and subsequently analysed with synchrotron radiation-induced X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (SR-XRF). Quantification of kerb and urban increments (defined as kerb-to-urban and urban-to-rural concentration ratios, respectively), and assessment of diurnal and weekly variability provided insight into sources governing urban air quality and the effects of urban micro-environments on human exposure. Traffic-related elements yielded the highest kerb increments, with values in the range of 10.4 to 16.6 for SW winds (3.3–6.9 for NE) observed for elements influenced by brake wear (e.g. Cu, Sb, Ba) and 5.7 to 8.2 for SW (2.6–3.0 for NE) for other traffic-related processes (e.g. Cr, Fe, Zn). Kerb increments for these elements were highest in the PM10–2.5 mass fraction, roughly twice that of the PM1.0–0.3 fraction. These elements also showed the highest urban increments (~ 3.0), although no difference was observed between brake wear and other traffic-related elements. All elements influenced by traffic exhibited higher concentrations during morning and evening rush hours, and on weekdays compared to weekends, with the strongest trends observed at the kerbside site, and additionally enhanced by winds coming directly from the road, consistent with street canyon effects. Elements related to mineral dust (e.g. Al, Si, Ca, Sr) showed significant influences from traffic-induced resuspension, as evidenced by moderate kerb (3.4–5.4 for SW, 1.7–2.3 for NE) and urban (~ 2) increments and increased concentrations during peak traffic flow. Elements related to regional transport showed no significant enhancement at kerb or urban sites, with the exception of PM10–2.5 sea salt (factor of up to 2), which may be influenced by traffic-induced resuspension of sea and/or road salt. Heavy-duty vehicles appeared to have a larger effect than passenger vehicles on the concentrations of all elements influenced by resuspension (including sea salt) and wearing processes. Trace element concentrations in London were influenced by both local and regional sources, with coarse and intermediate fractions dominated by traffic-induced resuspension and wearing processes and fine particles influenced by regional transport.

Greater Amman: metropolitan growth and scenarios for sustainable urban development

This paper reviews the development of Greater Amman, Jordan noting that the vast urban expansion that has occurred over the last fifty years has led to the desertification of rare fertile lands, following the fragmented and scattered territorial expansion of the city. The future scenario for planning in Greater Amman is analyzed in respect of proposals outlined in the Metropolitan Growth Plan of 2008, which assumes a rapid population growth from 2,200,000 persons in 2006, to approximately 6,500,000 by 2025. The concentration of more than 39 per cent of the national population of Jordan in Greater Amman threatens the transformation of former distinct settlement pattern into a distinctive continuous urban zone, aggravating problems of infrastructural provision, water needs, agricultural lands, and leaving unresolved problems of land inflation, poor urban standards and housing shortages. In conclusion, the environmental implications of the Amman Metropolitan Growth Plan are analysed, and it is suggested that an alternative approach is needed, based on clear principles of sustainable urban development.

Spatio-temporal variations of ozone and nitrogen dioxide concentrations under urban trees and in a nearby open area

The evergreen Quercus ilex L. is one of the most common trees in Italian urban environments and is considered effective in the uptake of particulate and gaseous atmospheric pollutants. However, the few available estimates on O3 and NO2 removal by urban Q. ilex originate from model-based studies (which indicate NO2/O3 removal capacity of Q. ilex) and not from direct measurements of air pollutant concentrations. Thus, in the urban area of Siena (central Italy) we began long-term monitoring of O3/NO2 concentrations using passive samplers at a distance of 1, 5, 10 m from a busy road, under the canopies of Q. ilex and in a nearby open-field. Measurements performed in the period June 2011-October 2013 showed always a greater decrease of NO2 concentrations under the Q. ilex canopy than in the open-field transect. Conversely, a decrease of average O3 concentrations under the tree canopy was found only in autumn after the typical Mediterranean post-summer rainfalls. Our results indicate that interactions between O3/NO2 concentrations and trees in Mediterranean urban ecosystems are affected by temporal variations in climatic conditions. We argue therefore that the direct measurement of atmospheric pollutant concentrations should be chosen to describe local changes of aerial pollution.