LiDAR data filtering with GRASS GIS for the determination of digital terrain models

In the last years, the use of every type of Digital Elevation Models has iimproved. The LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) technology, based on the scansion of the territory b airborne laser telemeters, allows the construction of digital Surface Models (DSM), in an easy way by a simple data interpolation

Augmented state Kalman filtering for AUV navigation

Addresses the problem of estimating the motion of an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV), while it constructs a visual map ("mosaic" image) of the ocean floor. The vehicle is equipped with a down-looking camera which is used to compute its motion with respect to the seafloor. As the mosaic increases in size, a systematic bias is introduced in the alignment of the images which form the mosaic. Therefore, this accumulative error produces a drift in the estimation of the position of the vehicle. When the arbitrary trajectory of the AUV crosses over itself, it is possible to reduce this propagation of image alignment errors within the mosaic. A Kalman filter with augmented state is proposed to optimally estimate both the visual map and the vehicle position

A Motion compensated filtering approach to remove sunlight flicker in shallow water images

A common problem in video surveys in very shallow waters is the presence of strong light fluctuations, due to sun light refraction. Refracted sunlight casts fast moving patterns, which can significantly degrade the quality of the acquired data. Motivated by the growing need to improve the quality of shallow water imagery, we propose a method to remove sunlight patterns in video sequences. The method exploits the fact that video sequences allow several observations of the same area of the sea floor, over time. It is based on computing the image difference between a given reference frame and the temporal median of a registered set of neighboring images. A key observation is that this difference will have two components with separable spectral content. One is related to the illumination field (lower spatial frequencies) and the other to the registration error (higher frequencies). The illumination field, recovered by lowpass filtering, is used to correct the reference image. In addition to removing the sunflickering patterns, an important advantage of the approach is the ability to preserve the sharpness in corrected image, even in the presence of registration inaccuracies. The effectiveness of the method is illustrated in image sets acquired under strong camera motion containing non-rigid benthic structures. The results testify the good performance and generality of the approach

Refinement criteria for global illumination using convex funcions

In several computer graphics areas, a refinement criterion is often needed to decide whether to go on or to stop sampling a signal. When the sampled values are homogeneous enough, we assume that they represent the signal fairly well and we do not need further refinement, otherwise more samples are required, possibly with adaptive subdivision of the domain. For this purpose, a criterion which is very sensitive to variability is necessary. In this paper, we present a family of discrimination measures, the f-divergences, meeting this requirement. These convex functions have been well studied and successfully applied to image processing and several areas of engineering. Two applications to global illumination are shown: oracles for hierarchical radiosity and criteria for adaptive refinement in ray-tracing. We obtain significantly better results than with classic criteria, showing that f-divergences are worth further investigation in computer graphics. Also a discrimination measure based on entropy of the samples for refinement in ray-tracing is introduced. The recursive decomposition of entropy provides us with a natural method to deal with the adaptive subdivision of the sampling region

Laser stripe peak detector for 3D scanners: a FIR filter approach

The accuracy of a 3D reconstruction using laser scanners is significantly determined by the detection of the laser stripe. Since the energy pattern of such a stripe corresponds to a Gaussian profile, it makes sense to detect the point of maximum light intensity (or peak) by computing the zero-crossing point of the first derivative of such Gaussian profile. However, because noise is present in every physical process, such as electronic image formation, it is not sensitive to perform the derivative of the image of the stripe in almost any situation, unless a previous filtering stage is done. Considering that stripe scanning is an inherently row-parallel process, every row of a given image must be processed independently in order to compute its corresponding peak position in the row. This paper reports on the use of digital filtering techniques in order to cope with the scanning of different surfaces with different optical properties and different noise levels, leading to the proposal of a more accurate numerical peak detector, even at very low signal-to-noise ratios

On the way to solve lighting problems in underwater imaging

A major obstacle to processing images of the ocean floor comes from the absorption and scattering effects of the light in the aquatic environment. Due to the absorption of the natural light, underwater vehicles often require artificial light sources attached to them to provide the adequate illumination. Unfortunately, these flashlights tend to illuminate the scene in a nonuniform fashion, and, as the vehicle moves, induce shadows in the scene. For this reason, the first step towards application of standard computer vision techniques to underwater imaging requires dealing first with these lighting problems. This paper analyses and compares existing methodologies to deal with low-contrast, nonuniform illumination in underwater image sequences. The reviewed techniques include: (i) study of the illumination-reflectance model, (ii) local histogram equalization, (iii) homomorphic filtering, and, (iv) subtraction of the illumination field. Several experiments on real data have been conducted to compare the different approaches

Towards a real-time vision-based navigation system for a small-class UUV

This paper deals with the problem of navigation for an unmanned underwater vehicle (UUV) through image mosaicking. It represents a first step towards a real-time vision-based navigation system for a small-class low-cost UUV. We propose a navigation system composed by: (i) an image mosaicking module which provides velocity estimates; and (ii) an extended Kalman filter based on the hydrodynamic equation of motion, previously identified for this particular UUV. The obtained system is able to estimate the position and velocity of the robot. Moreover, it is able to deal with visual occlusions that usually appear when the sea bottom does not have enough visual features to solve the correspondence problem in a certain area of the trajectory

Visual SLAM for 3D large-scale seabed acquisition employing underwater vehicles

This paper presents a novel technique to align partial 3D reconstructions of the seabed acquired by a stereo camera mounted on an autonomous underwater vehicle. Vehicle localization and seabed mapping is performed simultaneously by means of an Extended Kalman Filter. Passive landmarks are detected on the images and characterized considering 2D and 3D features. Landmarks are re-observed while the robot is navigating and data association becomes easier but robust. Once the survey is completed, vehicle trajectory is smoothed by a Rauch-Tung-Striebel filter obtaining an even better alignment of the 3D views and yet a large-scale acquisition of the seabed

Visual SLAM for underwater vehicles using video velocity log and natural landmarks

A visual SLAM system has been implemented and optimised for real-time deployment on an AUV equipped with calibrated stereo cameras. The system incorporates a novel approach to landmark description in which landmarks are local sub maps that consist of a cloud of 3D points and their associated SIFT/SURF descriptors. Landmarks are also sparsely distributed which simplifies and accelerates data association and map updates. In addition to landmark-based localisation the system utilises visual odometry to estimate the pose of the vehicle in 6 degrees of freedom by identifying temporal matches between consecutive local sub maps and computing the motion. Both the extended Kalman filter and unscented Kalman filter have been considered for filtering the observations. The output of the filter is also smoothed using the Rauch-Tung-Striebel (RTS) method to obtain a better alignment of the sequence of local sub maps and to deliver a large-scale 3D acquisition of the surveyed area. Synthetic experiments have been performed using a simulation environment in which ray tracing is used to generate synthetic images for the stereo system

Informed recommender: basing recommendations on consumer product reviews

Recommender systems attempt to predict items in which a user might be interested, given some information about the user's and items' profiles. Most existing recommender systems use content-based or collaborative filtering methods or hybrid methods that combine both techniques (see the sidebar for more details). We created Informed Recommender to address the problem of using consumer opinion about products, expressed online in free-form text, to generate product recommendations. Informed recommender uses prioritized consumer product reviews to make recommendations. Using text-mining techniques, it maps each piece of each review comment automatically into an ontology

OpenSearch-geo: the simple standard for geographic web search engines

When publishing information on the web, one expects it to reach all the people that could be interested in. This is mainly achieved with general purpose indexing and search engines like Google which is the most used today. In the particular case of geographic information (GI) domain, exposing content to mainstream search engines is a complex task that needs specific actions. In many occasions it is convenient to provide a web site with a specially tailored search engine. Such is the case for on-line dictionaries (wikipedia, wordreference), stores (amazon, ebay), and generally all those holding thematic databases. Due to proliferation of these engines, A9.com proposed a standard interface called OpenSearch, used by modern web browsers to manage custom search engines. Geographic information can also benefit from the use of specific search engines. We can distinguish between two main approaches in GI retrieval information efforts: Classical OGC standardization on one hand (CSW, WFS filters), which are very complex for the mainstream user, and on the other hand the neogeographer’s approach, usually in the form of specific APIs lacking a common query interface and standard geographic formats. A draft ‘geo’ extension for OpenSearch has been proposed. It adds geographic filtering for queries and recommends a set of simple standard response geographic formats, such as KML, Atom and GeoRSS. This proposal enables standardization while keeping simplicity, thus covering a wide range of use cases, in both OGC and the neogeography paradigms. In this article we will analyze the OpenSearch geo extension in detail and its use cases, demonstrating its applicability to both the SDI and the geoweb. Open source implementations will be presented as well

Development of an air-scour control system for membrane bioreactors

The thesis involves the development and implementation of a new and robust control system based on permeability trends but at the same time capable of reducing aeration proportionally to permeate flux. Permeability was made a key parameter for directly comparing temporary changes in membrane performance. Transmembrane pressure and flux were gathered every 10 seconds and permeability values were automatically calculated; different mathematical algorithms were applied for the signal filtering of on-line data. Short term and long term permeability trends were compared once a day, and a control action was applied proportionally to the short term/long term permeability ratio without exceeding the aeration flow recommended by the membrane suppliers.

Política i legislació educativa a l'entorn de l'escola unitària i cíclica. Evolució i situació actual a les comarques gironines (1970-1998)

Aquesta tesi doctoral té quatre objectius fonamentals: 1) analitzar la legislació espanyola i catalana referent a l'escola unitària i cíclica -altrament dita escola rural, escola incompleta o escola petita- des de final del segle XIX fins avui; 2) analitzar la política educativa teòrica i real que s'ha aplicat a aquest tipus d'escola des del final del segle XIX fins avui; 3) analitzar l'evolució del mapa escolar de les comarques gironines -i més concretament l'evolució de l'escola unitària i cíclica- durant el període 1970-1998; i 4) copsar les característiques bàsiques de les escoles unitàries i cícliques de les comarques gironines que impartien docència durant el curs 1997-98. L'aconseguiment d'aquest objectius han estat precedits i condicionats a la vegada per l'emmarcament teòric que hem elaborat i per la metodologia que hem aplicat. Pel que fa als aspectes pròpiament teòrics hem establert a grosso modo dues reflexions bàsiques: a) l'escola unitària i cíclica ha experimentat un procés de transformació notable des del final de la dècada dels 70 fins avui dia, i b) l'escola unitària i cíclica té un gran potencial pedagògic, relacional i humà arran dels "límits" objectius que té. En l'emmarcament teòric afirmem que l'escola "petita" ha evolucionat -sempre en termes generals- d'una manera positiva gràcies a la confluència de diversos factors. D'una banda cal parlar del paper assumit per bona part dels "mestres rurals", els pares i mares, els moviments de renovació pedagògica, el Secretariat d'Escola Rural de Catalunya, els sindicats i alguns partits politics, l'administració educativa i darrerament, el Grup Interuniversitari d'Escola Rural. D'altra banda, no podem oblidar que la millora de l''escola unitària i cíclica també es deu, segons el nostre parer, a l'emergència d'un discurs positivitzador així com a la revalorització social dels pobles "petits" (amb pocs habitants) i especialment dels que tenen una estructura rural. En l'emmarcament teòric també afirmem que l'escola unitària i cíclica compta amb un escenari educatiu privilegiat per impartir una educació més flexible i més oberta. Això es deu, entre altres aspectes, a allò que durant molt de temps s'ha considerat límits estructurals o dèficits: nombre reduït d'alumnes, nombre reduït d'unitats o aules, pocs mestres, espai escolar escàs i a més, molt poc fragmentat, etc. Tots aquests elements, que constitueixen els trets bàsics i més essencials de les escoles unitàries i no tant de les cícliques més grans, propicien allò que B. Bemstein anomena: un text pedagògic integrador, una classificació feble del currículum, un emmarcament dèbil de les relacions socials i una pedagogia invisible. La metodologia que s'ha utilitzat per aconseguir els objectius que hem esmentat es caracteritza per ser plural i per combinar els mètodes quantitatius i els qualitatius. L'objectiu nº1 s'ha aconseguit a través del buidatge i de la interpretació de la normativa referida al nostre objecte d'estudi. L'objectiu nº2 s'ha aconseguit mitjançant l'anàlisi global de la normativa anteriorment comentada i a través de dades estadístiques que provenen de diversos censos escolars. L'objectiu nº3 s'ha acomplert mitjançant el buidatge de les Fulls d'Estadística i dels Fulls d'organització pedagògica (elaborats pel MEC pel Departament d'Ensenyament respectivament). I el darrer objectiu s'ha aconseguit mitjançant l'elaboració d'un qüestionari adreçat a tots els directors i als mestres en plantilla de les escoles unitàries i cícliques. També s'ha elaborat una entrevista semiestructurada que s'ha passat a vuit persones relacionades amb l'escola que aquí ens ocupa. I per últim, també s'ha practicat l'observació participant en una dotzena de centres. Les principals conclusions que hem obtingut -seguint l'orde dels objectius i considerant el que hem exposat en parlar de l'emmarcament teòric són les següents: 1) La política educativa teòrica sobre l'escola unitària i cíclica s'estructura, pel que fa a l'àmbit de l'Estat Espanyol, a l'entorn de set períodes: i) 1838-1910. Des de les instancies governamentals s'accepta aquest tipus d'escola per bé que s'estableixen diferències notables entre les escoles "petites" del món rural i les del món urbà. ii) 1910-1931. S'inicia una política educativa poc favorable perquè s'insta a la graduació de les escoles unitàries i cícliques, malgrat ho facin d'una manera poc ortodoxa. iii) 1931-1939. La política de construccions escolars de la República contempla i fins i tot discrimina d'una manera positiva les escoles incompletes. iv) 1939-1955. EI franquisme de la postguerra tolera, almenys de manera oficial, la presencia i la construcció de noves escoles "petites" per bé que a mesura que s'avança només preveu que es construeixin en el medi rural. v) 1955-1970. S'inicia un procés d'asfíxia que acaba prohibint la construcció d'escoles incompletes. vi) 1971-1982. S'aguditza la política del període anterior. vii) 1982-1995. S'enceta . una política educativa sensible amb l'escola unitària I cíclica. Pel que fa a Catalunya, la política educativa teòrica s'estructura en dos períodes: a) 1981-1987. Es projecta una política més aviat grisa i poc ambiciosa, i b) 1987 fins als nostres dies. Desenvolupament d'una política que, en alguns aspectes, es mostra a favor de l'escola "petita". 2) Malgrat que durant molt temps l'escola unitària cíclica, tant en l'àmbit espanyol com en el català, no hagi tingut una política teòrica favorable ha perdurat fins el dia d'avui. Per fer-nos una idea del que ha representat aquest tipus de centres pensem que són significatives les afirmacions següents: i) L'escola unitària i cíclica és l'única escola pública que existeix a l'Estat espanyol fins al final del segle XIX, ii) L'escola unitària i cíclica augmenta de manera progressivament dades absolutes- fins el 1935, iii) L'escola unitària i cíclica és el tipus de centre més representat -considerant la resta de centres- fins al final de la dècada dels 60. 3) Durant el període 1970-1998 constatem que el mapa escolar de les comarques gironines s'ha transformat notablement arran, tal com succeeix en el conjunt de l'Estat espanyol, de l'expansió progressiva de l'escola graduada o completa. Al curs 1970-71 les comarques gironines tenien 34 escoles graduades (que representaven el 10,9% dels centres públics gironins) i 279 escoles incompletes (149 escoles cícliques 1130 d'unitàries que representaven el 89,1% del total). Al curs 1997-98, en canvi, hem comptabilitzat 111 escoles completes (54,7% dels centres públics) i 92 d'incompletes (72 escoles cícliques i 20 d'unitàries que representen el 45,3%). Malgrat aquesta davallada cal fer pal·lès que avui dia l'escola unitària i cíclica és majoritària (representa el 50% o més dels centres públics) en quatre de les comarques gironines: l'Alt Empordà, el Baix Empordà, la Garrotxa i el Pla de l'Estany. 4) Pel que fa al darrer objectiu, així com els dos aspectes principals que hem plantejat en el marc teòric arribem a les conclusions següents: L'escola unitària i cíclica de les comarques gironines si bé és cert que en termes generals ha millorat notablement -ha millorat la infraestructura, ha incrementat el material didàctic, ha incorporat mestres especialistes, etc.- no ha assolit encara la plena normalització. Avui dia encara trobem escoles que per deixadesa de l'ajuntament no tenen telèfon, l'edifici no es troba en bones condicions, el pati no reuneix les condicions mínimes, etc. D'altra banda, més del 90% d'aquests centres no disposen de mestre d'educació especial. També considerem important remarcar el fet que una part considerable dels centres estudiants no tenen serveis paraescolars de primera necessitat: el 50% no té menjador, el 72,7% no té llar d'infants i el 76,2% no té transport escolar. Per acabar, només cal dir que si bé l'escola incompleta de les comarques gironines imparteix una educació de qualitat i renovadora, no totes les escoles exploten al màxim les potencialitats educatives i relacionals que els atribuïm en l'emmarcament teòric. Conseqüentment no totes apliquen una pedagogia invisible en el sentit Bemstenià del terme. Si bé el 75% dels centres utilitzen, de manera parcial, una modalitat de transmissió difusa perquè utilitzen una pedagogia activa, no podem oblidar que només una minoria -que no arriba al 3%- s'atreveix a prescindir -i només en determinades circumstàncies- dels llibres de text. Les relacions de poder, de jerarquia, i control només són difuses en unes poques escoles ja que l'elaboració de les normes i l'aplicació de les sancions corre a càrrec del mestre en el 75,7% i en el 58% dels centres respectivament. Les regles de seqüència són flexibles en el 68% dels centres perquè adapten el ritme d'aprenentatge a l'especificitat de cada alumne, però molt poques escoles, el 12,4%, són les que alteren amb certa assiduïtat l'ordre del currículum.

A proposal to estimate the motion of an underwater vehicle through visual mosaicking

This thesis proposes a solution to the problem of estimating the motion of an Unmanned Underwater Vehicle (UUV). Our approach is based on the integration of the incremental measurements which are provided by a vision system. When the vehicle is close to the underwater terrain, it constructs a visual map (so called "mosaic") of the area where the mission takes place while, at the same time, it localizes itself on this map, following the Concurrent Mapping and Localization strategy. The proposed methodology to achieve this goal is based on a feature-based mosaicking algorithm. A down-looking camera is attached to the underwater vehicle. As the vehicle moves, a sequence of images of the sea-floor is acquired by the camera. For every image of the sequence, a set of characteristic features is detected by means of a corner detector. Then, their correspondences are found in the next image of the sequence. Solving the correspondence problem in an accurate and reliable way is a difficult task in computer vision. We consider different alternatives to solve this problem by introducing a detailed analysis of the textural characteristics of the image. This is done in two phases: first comparing different texture operators individually, and next selecting those that best characterize the point/matching pair and using them together to obtain a more robust characterization. Various alternatives are also studied to merge the information provided by the individual texture operators. Finally, the best approach in terms of robustness and efficiency is proposed. After the correspondences have been solved, for every pair of consecutive images we obtain a list of image features in the first image and their matchings in the next frame. Our aim is now to recover the apparent motion of the camera from these features. Although an accurate texture analysis is devoted to the matching pro-cedure, some false matches (known as outliers) could still appear among the right correspon-dences. For this reason, a robust estimation technique is used to estimate the planar transformation (homography) which explains the dominant motion of the image. Next, this homography is used to warp the processed image to the common mosaic frame, constructing a composite image formed by every frame of the sequence. With the aim of estimating the position of the vehicle as the mosaic is being constructed, the 3D motion of the vehicle can be computed from the measurements obtained by a sonar altimeter and the incremental motion computed from the homography. Unfortunately, as the mosaic increases in size, image local alignment errors increase the inaccuracies associated to the position of the vehicle. Occasionally, the trajectory described by the vehicle may cross over itself. In this situation new information is available, and the system can readjust the position estimates. Our proposal consists not only in localizing the vehicle, but also in readjusting the trajectory described by the vehicle when crossover information is obtained. This is achieved by implementing an Augmented State Kalman Filter (ASKF). Kalman filtering appears as an adequate framework to deal with position estimates and their associated covariances. Finally, some experimental results are shown. A laboratory setup has been used to analyze and evaluate the accuracy of the mosaicking system. This setup enables a quantitative measurement of the accumulated errors of the mosaics created in the lab. Then, the results obtained from real sea trials using the URIS underwater vehicle are shown.

An approach to coded structured light to obtain three dimensional information

The human visual ability to perceive depth looks like a puzzle. We perceive three-dimensional spatial information quickly and efficiently by using the binocular stereopsis of our eyes and, what is mote important the learning of the most common objects which we achieved through living. Nowadays, modelling the behaviour of our brain is a fiction, that is why the huge problem of 3D perception and further, interpretation is split into a sequence of easier problems. A lot of research is involved in robot vision in order to obtain 3D information of the surrounded scene. Most of this research is based on modelling the stereopsis of humans by using two cameras as if they were two eyes. This method is known as stereo vision and has been widely studied in the past and is being studied at present, and a lot of work will be surely done in the future. This fact allows us to affirm that this topic is one of the most interesting ones in computer vision. The stereo vision principle is based on obtaining the three dimensional position of an object point from the position of its projective points in both camera image planes. However, before inferring 3D information, the mathematical models of both cameras have to be known. This step is known as camera calibration and is broadly describes in the thesis. Perhaps the most important problem in stereo vision is the determination of the pair of homologue points in the two images, known as the correspondence problem, and it is also one of the most difficult problems to be solved which is currently investigated by a lot of researchers. The epipolar geometry allows us to reduce the correspondence problem. An approach to the epipolar geometry is describes in the thesis. Nevertheless, it does not solve it at all as a lot of considerations have to be taken into account. As an example we have to consider points without correspondence due to a surface occlusion or simply due to a projection out of the camera scope. The interest of the thesis is focused on structured light which has been considered as one of the most frequently used techniques in order to reduce the problems related lo stereo vision. Structured light is based on the relationship between a projected light pattern its projection and an image sensor. The deformations between the pattern projected into the scene and the one captured by the camera, permits to obtain three dimensional information of the illuminated scene. This technique has been widely used in such applications as: 3D object reconstruction, robot navigation, quality control, and so on. Although the projection of regular patterns solve the problem of points without match, it does not solve the problem of multiple matching, which leads us to use hard computing algorithms in order to search the correct matches. In recent years, another structured light technique has increased in importance. This technique is based on the codification of the light projected on the scene in order to be used as a tool to obtain an unique match. Each token of light is imaged by the camera, we have to read the label (decode the pattern) in order to solve the correspondence problem. The advantages and disadvantages of stereo vision against structured light and a survey on coded structured light are related and discussed. The work carried out in the frame of this thesis has permitted to present a new coded structured light pattern which solves the correspondence problem uniquely and robust. Unique, as each token of light is coded by a different word which removes the problem of multiple matching. Robust, since the pattern has been coded using the position of each token of light with respect to both co-ordinate axis. Algorithms and experimental results are included in the thesis. The reader can see examples 3D measurement of static objects, and the more complicated measurement of moving objects. The technique can be used in both cases as the pattern is coded by a single projection shot. Then it can be used in several applications of robot vision. Our interest is focused on the mathematical study of the camera and pattern projector models. We are also interested in how these models can be obtained by calibration, and how they can be used to obtained three dimensional information from two correspondence points. Furthermore, we have studied structured light and coded structured light, and we have presented a new coded structured light pattern. However, in this thesis we started from the assumption that the correspondence points could be well-segmented from the captured image. Computer vision constitutes a huge problem and a lot of work is being done at all levels of human vision modelling, starting from a)image acquisition; b) further image enhancement, filtering and processing, c) image segmentation which involves thresholding, thinning, contour detection, texture and colour analysis, and so on. The interest of this thesis starts in the next step, usually known as depth perception or 3D measurement.