Käännökset antiikin kulttuuriperinnön välittäjinä

Kirjoitus perustuu esitelmään Tieteen päivillä 8.-12.1.2003.

Le jazz : jazz and music criticism in France

Kirjallisuusarvostelu

From War Pigs to Unsung Heroes: The Criticism and Justification of War in Metal Lyrics

Tässä tutkimuksessa käsitellään heavy metal -kappaleiden sanoitusten sisältöä. Tutkimusmateriaaliin on valittu yksi teema, sota, jonka avulla avataan sanoitusten sisältöä ja merkitystä. Metallimusiikki alakulttuurina on tyylillisesti ja temaattisesti spesifi, ja sillä on omat musiikilliset tavoitteensa. Tässä tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan erityisesti sitä miten sotaa kritisoidaan tai perustellaan heavy rock -sanoituksissa. Tutkimusmateriaalini koostuu 29 englanninkielisen kappaleen sanoituksesta vuosilta 1970–2012. Edustettuina on useita ajanjaksoja sekä maita. Yhdistävänä tekijänä on englannin kielen lisäksi se, että kaikki sanoitukset käsittelevät modernia länsimaista sodankäyntiä. Tekstit valittiin sen perusteella, että niissä ilmeni positiivinen tai negatiivinen näkökulma sotaan. Tutkimus nojaa Theo van Leeuwenin legitimaatioteoriaan, joka puolestaan pohjautuu diskurssianalyysiin. Legitimaatioteoria käsittää neljä strategiaa, jotka voivat joko kritisoida tai perustella sosiaalisia käytänteitä. Ne ovat auktoriteetteihin vetoaminen, moraalinen arviointi, järkeistäminen ja mytopoeesi. Yksi tavoitteistani tutkimuksessani on selvittää legitimaatioteorian toimivuutta omassa materiaalissani. Käytän metodina lähilukua, joka mahdollistaa niiden sanojen ja ilmaisujen identifioimisen, jotka ovat näkökulmaltaan joko positiivisesti tai negatiivisesti sotaan suhtautuvia. Analyysini kannalta tärkeitä ovat sekä kieli- että kulttuurikonteksti, sillä ne määrittelevät sanojen merkityksen. Analyysin perusteella kävi ilmi, että esimerkit jakautuivat eri strategioiden välille hyvin epätasaisesti. Auktoriteetteihin vetoamisen strategiasta löytyi vain yksi esimerkki, kun taas moraalisen arvioinnin esimerkkejä oli neljätoista. Lisäksi kaikkia legitimaatioteorian alaryhmiä ei löytynyt materiaalista ollenkaan. Osalla alaryhmistä oli useita esiintymiä, mutta osalla vain yksi. Esimerkkien epätasaista jakautumista selittää mm. se, että tutkimuksen materiaalin kannalta kaikki alakategoriat eivät ole relevantteja. Jotta tutkimustuloksista saataisiin edustavampi, laajempi otanta olisi tarpeen. Legitimaatioteorian soveltuvuutta sanoituksien yhteydessä tulisi tutkia laajemmin.

Cost information in engineering design -Potentials and limitations of activity-based costing

The purpose of this thesis is to analyse activity-based costing (ABC) and possible modified versions ofit in engineering design context. The design engineers need cost information attheir decision-making level and the cost information should also have a strong future orientation. These demands are high because traditional management accounting has concentrated on the direct actual costs of the products. However, cost accounting has progressed as ABC was introduced late 1980s and adopted widely bycompanies in the 1990s. The ABC has been a success, but it has gained also criticism. In some cases the ambitious ABC systems have become too complex to build,use and update. This study can be called an action-oriented case study with some normative features. In this thesis theoretical concepts are assessed and allowed to unfold gradually through interaction with data from three cases. The theoretical starting points are ABC and theory of engineering design process (chapter2). Concepts and research results from these theoretical approaches are summarized in two hypotheses (chapter 2.3). The hypotheses are analysed with two cases (chapter 3). After the two case analyses, the ABC part is extended to cover alsoother modern cost accounting methods, e.g. process costing and feature costing (chapter 4.1). The ideas from this second theoretical part are operationalized with the third case (chapter 4.2). The knowledge from the theory and three cases is summarized in the created framework (chapter 4.3). With the created frameworkit is possible to analyse ABC and its modifications in the engineering design context. The framework collects the factors that guide the choice of the costing method to be used in engineering design. It also illuminates the contents of various ABC-related costing methods. However, the framework needs to be further tested. On the basis of the three cases it can be said that ABC should be used cautiously when formulating cost information for engineering design. It is suitable when the manufacturing can be considered simple, or when the design engineers are not cost conscious, and in the beginning of the design process when doing adaptive or variant design. If the design engineers need cost information for the embodiment or detailed design, or if manufacturing can be considered complex, or when design engineers are cost conscious, the ABC has to be always evaluated critically.

Foodstuffs and medicines as legal categories in the EU and China. Functional foods as a borderline case

The thesis discusses the regulation of foodstuffs and medicines, and particularly the regulation of functional foods. Legal systems investigated are the EU and China. Both are members of the WTO and Codex Alimentarius, which binds European and Chinese rules together. The study uses three Chinese berries as case examples of how product development faces regulation in practice. The berries have traditional uses as herbal medicines. Europe and China have similar nutrition problems to be resolved, such as obesity, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes. The three berries might be suitable raw materials for functional foods. Consumer products with health-enhancing functions, such as lowering blood pressure, might legally be classifi ed either as foodstuffs or medicines. The classifi cation will depend on functions and presentation of the product. In our opinion, food and medicine regulation should come closer together so the classifi cation issue would no longer be an issue. Safety of both foodstuffs and medicines is strictly regulated. With medicines, safety is a more relative concept, where benefi ts of the product are compared to side-effects in thorough scientifi c tests and trials. Foods, on the other hand, are not allowed to have side-effects. Hygiene rules and rules on the use of chemicals apply. In China, food safety is currently at focus as China has had several severe food scandals. Newly developed foods are called novel foods, and are specifi cally regulated. The current European novel food regulation from 1997 treats traditional third country products as novel. The Chinese regulation of 2007 also defi nes novel foods as something unfamiliar to a Chinese consumer. The concepts of novel food thus serve a protectionist purpose. As regards marketing, foods are allowed to bear health claims, whereas medicines bear medicinal claims. The separation is legally strict: foods are not to be presented as having medicinal functions. European nutrition and health claim regulation exists since 2006. China also has its regulation on health foods, listing the permitted claims and how to substantiate them. Health claims are allowed only on health foods. The European rules on medicines include separate categories for herbal medicines, traditional herbal medicines, and homeopathic medicines, where there are differing requirements for scientifi c substantiation. The scientifi c and political grounds for the separate categories provoke criticism. At surface, the Chinese legal system seems similar to the European one. To facilitate trade, China has enacted modern laws. Laws are needed as the country moves from planned economy to market economy: ‘rule of law’ needs to replace ‘rule of man’. Instead of being citizens, Chinese people long were subordinates to the Emperor. Confucius himself advised to avoid confl ict. Still, Chinese people do not and cannot always trust the legal system, as laws are enforced in an inconsistent manner, and courts are weak. In China, there have been problems with confl icting national and local laws. In Europe, the competence of the EU vs. the competence of the Member States is still not resolved, even though the European Commission often states that free trade requires harmonisation. Food and medicine regulation is created by international organisations, food and medicine control agencies, standards agencies, companies and their organisations. Regulation can be divided in ‘hard law’ and ‘soft law’. One might claim that hard law is in crisis, as soft law is gaining importance. If law is out of fashion, regulation certainly isn’t. In the future, ‘law’ might mean a process where rules and incentives are created by states, NGOs, companies, consumers, and other stakeholders. ‘Law’ might thus refer to a constant negotiation between public and private actors. Legal principles such as transparency, equal treatment, and the right to be heard would still be important.

Professional sports and gambling regulation in Finland - Examining the institutional factors of gambling affecting professional sport clubs in Finland

This study examines how to institutional environment of gambling is currently in motion both in Europe and Finland. Furthermore, it examines the criticism by Finnish professional sport clubs directed towards the national gambling monopolies, especially Veikkaus Oy. This criticism addresses the acclaimed issue of low or non-existing sponsorship funds coming to the clubs despite the clubs’ duties to promote Veikkaus Oy in their stadiums etc. In essence the main research objective was to examine the interaction and institutional environments of both Finnish professional sport clubs and gambling regulation. This was done through three sub-objectives: 1) to analyze professional sport as business and its institutional environment 2) to analyze the institutions of gambling in their current state and their potential future 3) to evaluate the potential impact of an institutional change in gambling legislation to the professional sport clubs The findings from Finland were then compared to those of Denmark where an institutional change had occurred in gambling regulation. Empirical data was collected through multiple interviews. Interviewees represented sport clubs (7), sport association (1), sport league (1), Finnish monopoly representatives (2), commercial gambling providers (1), Danish monopoly system representatives (1), Danish sport club (1). In addition a vast amount of secondary data (e.g. Green and white books by EU, court decisions, a variety of studies etc.). Theoretically this study combines the aspects of institutional theory with the theory of professional sports as business. This proved to be a rather new approach and no published literature was found to have done specifically this. The findings of this study are twofold, on the European level it is clear that the momentum if towards a more liberated gambling market while Finland is at the moment trying to go the opposite direction and uphold its monopoly. From the sport club’s level the findings suggest that currently sport clubs do not directly benefit from the funds originated from Veikkaus Oy as these funds are more or less used on the association/league levels. However, the clubs themselves are also lacking in self-criticism as they are lacking in clear sponsorship packages/programs which Veikkaus Oy might be interested in participating. If liberation of the gambling market would occur it is highly possible that that the largest clubs in football and ice-hockey would be the main beneficiaries while smaller clubs and sports could possibly be worse off than currently. These interpretations were well supported by the findings from Denmark.

Defining the art of grammar: Ancient perceptions of γραμματική and grammatical

The subject of this dissertation, which belongs to the field of Classical Philology, are the definitions of the art of grammar found in Greek and Latin sources from the Classical era to the second century CE. Definitions survive from grammarians, philosophers, and general scholars. I have examined these definitions from two main points of view: how they are formed, and how they reflect the development of the art itself. Defining formed part of dialectic, in practice also of rhetoric, and was perceived as important from the Classical era onwards. Definitions of grammar seem to have become established as part of preliminary discussions, located at the beginning of grammatical manuals (tékhnai, artes). These discussions included certain principal notions of the art; in addition to the definition, a list of the parts of the art was also typically included. These lists were formed by two different methods: division (diaíresis, divisio) and partition (merismós, partitio). Many of the grammarians may actually have been unfamiliar with these methods, unlike the two most important scholars of the Late Republic, Varro and Cicero. Significant attention was devoted to the question whether the art of grammar is based on lógos or empeiría. This epistemological question had its roots in medical theories, which were prominent in Alexandria. In the history of the concept of grammatiké or grammatica, three stages become evident. In the Classical era, the Greek term is used to refer to a very concrete art of letters (grámmata); from the Hellenistic era onwards it refers to the art developed by the Alexandrian scholars, a matter of textual and literary criticism. Towards the end of the Hellenistic era, the grammarian also becomes involved with the question of correct language, which gradually begins to appear in the definitions as well.

Nichesourcing The Uralic Languages For The Benefit Of Linguistic Research And Lingual Societies

The emerging technologies have recently challenged the libraries to reconsider their role as a mere mediator between the collections, researchers, and wider audiences (Sula, 2013), and libraries, especially the nationwide institutions like national libraries, haven’t always managed to face the challenge (Nygren et al., 2014). In the Digitization Project of Kindred Languages, the National Library of Finland has become a node that connects the partners to interplay and work for shared goals and objectives. In this paper, I will be drawing a picture of the crowdsourcing methods that have been established during the project to support both linguistic research and lingual diversity. The National Library of Finland has been executing the Digitization Project of Kindred Languages since 2012. The project seeks to digitize and publish approximately 1,200 monograph titles and more than 100 newspapers titles in various, and in some cases endangered Uralic languages. Once the digitization has been completed in 2015, the Fenno-Ugrica online collection will consist of 110,000 monograph pages and around 90,000 newspaper pages to which all users will have open access regardless of their place of residence. The majority of the digitized literature was originally published in the 1920s and 1930s in the Soviet Union, and it was the genesis and consolidation period of literary languages. This was the era when many Uralic languages were converted into media of popular education, enlightenment, and dissemination of information pertinent to the developing political agenda of the Soviet state. The ‘deluge’ of popular literature in the 1920s to 1930s suddenly challenged the lexical orthographic norms of the limited ecclesiastical publications from the 1880s onward. Newspapers were now written in orthographies and in word forms that the locals would understand. Textbooks were written to address the separate needs of both adults and children. New concepts were introduced in the language. This was the beginning of a renaissance and period of enlightenment (Rueter, 2013). The linguistically oriented population can also find writings to their delight, especially lexical items specific to a given publication, and orthographically documented specifics of phonetics. The project is financially supported by the Kone Foundation in Helsinki and is part of the Foundation’s Language Programme. One of the key objectives of the Kone Foundation Language Programme is to support a culture of openness and interaction in linguistic research, but also to promote citizen science as a tool for the participation of the language community in research. In addition to sharing this aspiration, our objective within the Language Programme is to make sure that old and new corpora in Uralic languages are made available for the open and interactive use of the academic community as well as the language societies. Wordlists are available in 17 languages, but without tokenization, lemmatization, and so on. This approach was verified with the scholars, and we consider the wordlists as raw data for linguists. Our data is used for creating the morphological analyzers and online dictionaries at the Helsinki and Tromsø Universities, for instance. In order to reach the targets, we will produce not only the digitized materials but also their development tools for supporting linguistic research and citizen science. The Digitization Project of Kindred Languages is thus linked with the research of language technology. The mission is to improve the usage and usability of digitized content. During the project, we have advanced methods that will refine the raw data for further use, especially in the linguistic research. How does the library meet the objectives, which appears to be beyond its traditional playground? The written materials from this period are a gold mine, so how could we retrieve these hidden treasures of languages out of the stack that contains more than 200,000 pages of literature in various Uralic languages? The problem is that the machined-encoded text (OCR) contains often too many mistakes to be used as such in research. The mistakes in OCRed texts must be corrected. For enhancing the OCRed texts, the National Library of Finland developed an open-source code OCR editor that enabled the editing of machine-encoded text for the benefit of linguistic research. This tool was necessary to implement, since these rare and peripheral prints did often include already perished characters, which are sadly neglected by the modern OCR software developers, but belong to the historical context of kindred languages and thus are an essential part of the linguistic heritage (van Hemel, 2014). Our crowdsourcing tool application is essentially an editor of Alto XML format. It consists of a back-end for managing users, permissions, and files, communicating through a REST API with a front-end interface—that is, the actual editor for correcting the OCRed text. The enhanced XML files can be retrieved from the Fenno-Ugrica collection for further purposes. Could the crowd do this work to support the academic research? The challenge in crowdsourcing lies in its nature. The targets in the traditional crowdsourcing have often been split into several microtasks that do not require any special skills from the anonymous people, a faceless crowd. This way of crowdsourcing may produce quantitative results, but from the research’s point of view, there is a danger that the needs of linguists are not necessarily met. Also, the remarkable downside is the lack of shared goal or the social affinity. There is no reward in the traditional methods of crowdsourcing (de Boer et al., 2012). Also, there has been criticism that digital humanities makes the humanities too data-driven and oriented towards quantitative methods, losing the values of critical qualitative methods (Fish, 2012). And on top of that, the downsides of the traditional crowdsourcing become more imminent when you leave the Anglophone world. Our potential crowd is geographically scattered in Russia. This crowd is linguistically heterogeneous, speaking 17 different languages. In many cases languages are close to extinction or longing for language revitalization, and the native speakers do not always have Internet access, so an open call for crowdsourcing would not have produced appeasing results for linguists. Thus, one has to identify carefully the potential niches to complete the needed tasks. When using the help of a crowd in a project that is aiming to support both linguistic research and survival of endangered languages, the approach has to be a different one. In nichesourcing, the tasks are distributed amongst a small crowd of citizen scientists (communities). Although communities provide smaller pools to draw resources, their specific richness in skill is suited for complex tasks with high-quality product expectations found in nichesourcing. Communities have a purpose and identity, and their regular interaction engenders social trust and reputation. These communities can correspond to research more precisely (de Boer et al., 2012). Instead of repetitive and rather trivial tasks, we are trying to utilize the knowledge and skills of citizen scientists to provide qualitative results. In nichesourcing, we hand in such assignments that would precisely fill the gaps in linguistic research. A typical task would be editing and collecting the words in such fields of vocabularies where the researchers do require more information. For instance, there is lack of Hill Mari words and terminology in anatomy. We have digitized the books in medicine, and we could try to track the words related to human organs by assigning the citizen scientists to edit and collect words with the OCR editor. From the nichesourcing’s perspective, it is essential that altruism play a central role when the language communities are involved. In nichesourcing, our goal is to reach a certain level of interplay, where the language communities would benefit from the results. For instance, the corrected words in Ingrian will be added to an online dictionary, which is made freely available for the public, so the society can benefit, too. This objective of interplay can be understood as an aspiration to support the endangered languages and the maintenance of lingual diversity, but also as a servant of ‘two masters’: research and society.

Finnish Maritime Personnel's Conceptions on Safety Management and Safety Culture

The purpose of this thesis is to explore Finnish maritime personnel’s conceptions of safety management and its relationship with the concept of safety culture. In addition, the aim is to evaluate the impact of the ISM Code on the prevailing safety culture in the Finnish shipping business. A total of 94 interviewees and seven Finnish shipping companies were involved in this study. Thematic interviews were applied as the main research method for the study. The results were analysed qualitatively. The results indicate that maritime safety culture can simultaneously demonstrate features of integration, differentiation and ambiguity. Basically, maritime personnel have a positive attitude towards safety management systems since they consider safety management beneficial and essential in general. However, the study also found considerable criticism among the interviewees. The interviewed maritime personnel did not criticise the ISM Code as such, yet they criticised the way the ISM Code has been applied in practise. In order to understand the multiple perspectives of safety culture more comprehensively, multiple theoretical perspectives and methodological approaches are needed. This study indicates that safety culture and the impacts of the ISM Code should not be unambiguously studied solely quantitative methods or qualitative methods. By examining safety culture from several methodological and theoretical perspectives, one may gain a more versatile and holistic overview of safety culture.

Digital collaborations and entrepreneurship – the role of shareconomy and crowdsourcing in the era of smart city

The thesis begins with the classical cooperation and transfers it to the digital world. This work gives a detailed overview of the young fields of research smart city, shareconomy and crowdsourcing and links these fields with entrepreneurship. The core research aim is the finding of connections between the research fields smart city, shareconomy and crowdsourcing and entrepreneurial activities and the specific fields of application, success factors and conditions for entrepreneurs. The thesis consists of seven peer-reviewed publications. Based on primary and secondary data, the existence of entrepreneurial opportunities in the fields of smart city, shareconomy and crowdsourcing could be confirmed. The first part (publications 1-3) of the thesis are literature reviews to secure the fundamental base for further research. This part consists of newly created definitions and an extreme sharpening of the research fields for the near future. In the second part of the thesis (publications 4-7), empirical field work (in-depth interviews with entrepreneurs) and quantitative analyses (fuzzy set/qualitative comparative analysis and binary logistic regression analysis) contribute to the field of research with additional new insights. Summarizing, the insights are multi-layered: theoretical (e.g. new definitions, sharpening of the research field), methodical (e.g. first time application of the fuzzy set/qualitative comparative analysis in the field of crowdfunding) and qualitative (first time application of in-depth interviews with entrepreneurs in the fields of smart city and shareconomy). The global research question could be answered: the link between entrepreneurship and smart city, shareconomy and crowdfunding could be confirmed, concrete fields of application could be identified and further developments could be touched upon. This work strongly contributes to the young fields of research through much-needed basic work, new qualitative approaches, innovative methods and new insights and offers opportunities for discussion, criticism and support for further research.