The strategic use of military contractors : American commercial military service providers in Bosnia and Liberia, 1995-2009

Drawing from strategic theory, this study investigates the strategic roles of commercial companies providing military services, frequently referred to as private military companies. Theoretically, the thesis analyzes how states organize its military capabilities in order to be able to wield power within the international system while empirically, it examines the character and role of commercial companies that provide military training services to the United States Government and partner nations. The reason for this rather instrumental and functional, rather than critical, approach is that this work is written within the discipline known as War Studies. Strategic theory is used first to logically organize the empirical findings in two case studies and then to develop an analytical framework with which the strategic roles of companies providing military services can be investigated. The analysis has been conducted using both new and hitherto unknown sources in the shape of interviews as well as previously classified telegrams, but also draws on previous research and other secondary sources. The main findings are that commercial companies have five typical strategic roles: first, they cloak the state by substituting traditional uniformed troops; second, they act as trailblazers by securing US influence in new regions and by breaking new ground by contributing to the build-up of new partners; third, they act as scene setters by preparing the ground for military exit out of a theater of operations or by facilitating inter-operability between foreign militaries and the US military; fourth, they can be used to infiltrate the security structures of foreign countries; fifth and finally, they can be used to provide offensive capabilities by providing either kinetic or cyber warfare effects. Another finding is that military service contracting is an important part of the US strategic culture.

Quest/ion of Identities in African American Feminist Postmodern Drama: A Study of Selected Plays by Suzan-Lori Parks

Innovative and unconventional, Pulitzer Prize-winning playwright Suzan-Lori Parks belongs to the continuum of African American playwrights who have contributed to the quest/ion – the quest for and question – of identities for African Americans. Her plays are sites in which the quest/ion of identities for African Americans is pursued, raised and enacted. She makes use of both page and stage to emphasize the exigency of reshaping African Americans’ identities through questioning the dominant ideologies and metanarratives, delegitimizing some of the prevailing stereotypes imposed on them, drawing out the complicity of the media in perpetuating racism, evoking slavery, lynching and their aftereffects, rehistoricizing African American history, catalyzing reflections on the various intersections of sex, race, class and gender orientations, and proffering alternative perspectives to help readers think more critically about issues facing African Americans. In my dissertation, I approach three plays by Parks – The Death of the Last Black Man in the Whole Entire World (1990), Venus (1996) and Fucking A (2000) – from the standpoints of postmodern drama and African American feminism with a focus on the terrains that reflect the quest/ion of identities for African Americans, especially African American women. I argue that postmodern drama and African American feminism provide the ground for Parks to promote the development of a political agenda in order to call into question a number of dominant ideologies and metanarratives with regard to African Americans and draw upon the roles of those metanarratives as a powerful apparatus of racial and sexual oppressions. I also explore how Parks engages with postmodern drama and African American feminism to incorporate her own mininarratives in the dominant discourses. I argue that Parks in these plays uses postmodern drama and African American feminism to encourage reflections on intersectionality in order to reveal the concerns of African Americans, particularly African American women. Her plays challenge the dominant order of hierarchy and patriarchy, while in some cases urging unity and solidarity between African American men and women by showing how unity and solidarity can help them confront race, class and gender oppressions. Furthermore, I discuss how the utilization of postmodern techniques and devices helps Parks to transform the conventional features of playwriting, to create incredulity toward the dominant systems of oppression and to incorporate her mininarratives within the context of dominant discourses.

Saako historiasta selvää? Monikulttuuriset yläkoululaiset historian lähteillä historian taidot motiivien, seurauksien, historian tulkintojen ja lähteiden luotettavuuden arvioinneissa

The research assesses the skills of upper comprehensive school pupils in history. The focus is on locating personal motives, assessing wider reasons hidden in historical sources and evaluating source reliability. The research also questions how a wide use of multiple sources affects pupils’ holistic understanding of historical phenomena. The participants were a multicultural group of pupils. The origins of their cultures can be traced to the Balkan, the Middle East, Asia and Europe. The number of native Finnish speakers and pupils speaking Finnish as their second language was almost equal. The multicultural composition provides opportunities to assess how culturally responsive learning history from sources is. The intercultural approach to learning in a multicultural setting emphasizes equality as a precondition for learning. In order to set assignments at least to some extent match with all participants only those answers were taken into account which were produced by pupils who had studied history for a similar period of time in the Finnish comprehensive school system. Due to the small number of participants (41), the study avoids wide generalizations. Nevertheless, possible cultural blueprints in pupils’ way of thinking are noted. The first test examined the skills of pupils to find motives for emigration. The results showed that for 7th graders finding reasons is not a problematic task. However, the number of reasons noticed and justifications varied. In addition, the way the pupils explained their choices was a distinguishing factor. Some pupils interpreted source material making use of previous knowledge on the issue, while other pupils based their analysis solely on the text handed and did not try to add their own knowledge. Answers were divided into three categories: historical, explanatory and stating. Historical answers combined smoothly previously learned historical knowledge to one’s own source analysis; explanatory answers often ignored a wider frame, although they were effective when explaining e.g. historical concepts. The stating answers only noticed motives from the sources and made no attempts to explain them historically. Was the first test culturally responsive? All pupils representing different cultures tackled the first source exam successfully, but there were some signs of how historical concepts are understood in a slightly different way if the pupil’s personal history has no linkage to the concepts under scrutiny. The second test focused on the history of Native Americans. The test first required pupils to recognize whether short source extracts (5) were written by Indians or Caucasians. Based on what they had already learned from North American history, the pupils did not find it hard to distinguish between the sources. The analysis of multiphase causes and consequences of the disputes between Native Americans and white Americans caused dispersion among pupils. Using two historical sources and combining historical knowledge from both of them simultaneously was cumbersome for many. The explanations of consequences can be divided into two groups: the ones emphasizing short term consequences and those placing emphasis on long term consequences. The short term approach was mainly followed by boys in every group. The girls mainly paid attention to long term consequences. The result suggests that historical knowledge in sources is at least to some extent read through role and gender lenses. The third test required pupils to explain in their own words how the three sources given differed in their account of living conditions in Nazi Germany, which turned out to be demanding for many pupils. The pupils’ stronghold was rather the assessment of source reliability and accounts why the sources approached the same events differently. All participants wrote critical and justified comments on reliability and aspects that might have affected the content of the sources. The pupils felt that the main reasons that affected source reliability were the authors’ ethnic background, nationality and profession. The assessment showed that pupils were well aware that position in a historical situation has an impact on historical accounts, but in certain cases the victim’s account was seen as a historical truth. The account of events by a historian was chosen most often as the most reliable source, but it was often justified leniently with an indication to professionalism rather than with clear ideas of how historians conduct accounts based on sources. In brief, the last source test demonstrates that pupils have a strong idea that the ethnicity or nationalism determines how people explained events of the past. It is also an implication that pupils understand how historical knowledge is interpretative. The results also imply that history can be analyzed from a neutral perspective. One’s own membership in an ethnical or religious group does not automatically mean that a person’s cultural identity excludes historical explanations if something in them contradicts with his or her identity. The second method of extracting knowledge of pupils’ historical thinking was an essay analysis. The analysis shows that an analytical account of complicated political issues, which often include a great number of complicated political concepts, leads more likely to an inconsistent structure in the written work of pupils. The material also demonstrates that pupils have a strong tendency to take a critical stance when assessing history. Historical empathy in particular is shown if history somehow has a linkage to young people, children or minorities. Some topics can also awake strong feelings, especially among pupils with emigrant background, if there is a linkage between one’s own personal history and that of the school; and occasionally a student’s historical experience or thoughts replaced school history. Using sources during history lessons at school seems to have many advantages. It enhances the reasoning skills of pupils and their skills to assess the nature of historical knowledge. Thus one of the main aims and a great benefit of source work is to encourage pupils to express their own ideas and opinions. To conclude, when assessing the skills of adolescents in history - their work with sources, comments on history, historical knowledge and finally their historical thinking - one should be cautious and avoid cut off score evaluations. One purpose of pursuing history with sources is to encourage pupils to think independently, which is a useful tool for further identity construction. The idea that pupils have the right to conduct their own interpretations of history can be partially understood as part of a wider learning process, justification to study history comes from extrinsic reasons. The intrinsic reason is history itself; in order to understand history one should have a basic understanding of history as a specific domain of knowledge. Using sources does not mean that knowing history is of secondary importance. Only a balance between knowing the contextual history, understanding basic key concepts and working with sources is a solid base to improve pupils’ historical understanding.

Pappi, lukkari, talonpoika, kolonialisti - Pohjois-Amerikan siirtokuntalaisten luontokäsitys narratiiveissa 1600-luvulla

Tutkimuksen tarkoituksena on selvittää, millainen oli 1600-luvun Pohjois-Amerikan siirtokuntalaisten luontokäsitys. Tutkimuksen alue on Pohjois-Amerikan koillisosat ja tutkittavana populaationa siirtokunnissa asuneet tai niistä kirjoittaneet englantilaiset ja hollantilaiset. Tutkielman metodi on sisällönanalyysi. Tutkin laajan joukon alueen siirtokuntalaisten narratiiveja. Pääasiallinen alkuperäislähteeni on kirjasarja Original Narratives of Early American History. Poimin narratiiveista luontoa käsitteleviä representaatioita. Jaoin representaatiot edelleen luokkiin ja alaluokkiin, jonka jäl-keen representaatiot pystyi pelkistämään. Vertasin luokitteluani valikoimaani aikaisempaan tutkimukseen, jonka mukaan siirtokuntalaisten luontokäsitys perustui joko perinteisiin kristilliseen luontokäsitykseen tai oli modernimpi utilitaristinen. Sekä perinteiseen, että utilitaristiseen luontokäsitykseen sopivia representaatioita nousi esille. Luontokäsitykset olivat myös sekoittuneet. Erotin kolme toisistaan erottuvaa luontokäsitysten luokkaa. Ensimmäinen luokka koostui representaatioista, jotka korostivat luonnon paratiisimaisia ominaisuuksia. Toinen luokka korosti luonnon erämaisuutta. Kolmas luokka koostui muista representaatioista, joissa korostuivat työnteko, tieteellinen kuvailu tai kaupankäynti. Kaikilla luokilla oli määriteltävissä useita alaluokkia, yhteensä kuusitoista. Luokkien muodostamisen jälkeen pystyin päättelemään, että siirtokuntalaisille ei voinut määritellä vain yhtä tiettyä luontokäsitystä. Siirtokuntalaisten luontokäsityksessä oli piirteitä utilitaristisesta suhtautumisesta luontoon, mutta se säilytti sisällään vielä vanhoja piirteitä vanhasta perinteisestä luontokäsityksestä. Yleisiä tuloksia oli, että kaupallisten siirtokuntien asukkaat tunnistivat muokkaamattoman luonnon taloudellisen hyödyn, mutta uskonnolliset siirtokuntalaiset suhtautuivat muokkaamattomaan luontoon peläten. Myös osa kaupallisten siirtokuntien asukkaista suhtautui tällä tavalla. Sekä kaupallisten, että uskonnollisten siirtokuntien asukkailla näkyi merkkejä protestanttisen työmoraalin vaikutuksesta luontokuvaan.

Manifestations of the American Dream: A Secret History

Pro gradu -tutkielmassani tarkastelen, miten amerikkalainen unelma on Yhdysvaltain historian saatossa kehittynyt yhteiskunnallisen kontrollin välineeksi. Amerikkalaisen unelman yksilölliset ja kollektiiviset kokemukset ovat ristiriidassa unelman sisäisten rakenteiden kanssa, jotka kätkeytyvät sen vahvan retoriikan taakse. Täten unelmasta muodostuu ideologia ja ideologinen valtakoneisto marxilaisen yhteiskuntateoreetikon Louis Althusserin määritelmien mukaisesti. Tutkielmassani tarkastelen amerikkalaisen unelman ilmenemistä amerikkalaisessa populaarikulttuurissa. Populaarikulttuuri tavoittaa laajan yleisön, ja sen arkipäiväiset aiheet välittävät ja uusintavat amerikkalaista unelmaa tehden siitä luonnollisen ja sisäistetyn osan amerikkalaisia toiminta- ja ajattelumalleja. Populaarikirjallisuutta esimerkkinä käyttäen pyrin selvittämään, miten amerikkalainen unelma ideologisena valtakoneistona käyttää hyväksi yksilön subjektiviteetin rakenteita taatakseen oman jatkuvuutensa. Teoreettisen viitekehyksen subjektiviteetin tarkastelulle luo ranskalaisen semiotiikantutkijan Julia Kristevan psykoanalyyttinen teoria, jonka mukaan subjektiviteetti rakentuu yksilön piilotajunnan ja tietoisuuden vuorovaikutuksesta. Amerikkalainen unelma hyödyntää tätä vuorovaikutusta peilaamalla yksilön piilotajuisia pelkoja ja haluja. Kristeva käsittelee piilotajuisia haluja käyttäen apunaan ranskankielistä termiä jouissance, joka viittaa sellaiseen tiedostamattomaan haluun tai tarpeeseen, joka toimii elämän elinehtona ja selviytymisviettinä. Pelkoja Kristeva puolestaan tarkastelee abjektion käsitteen kautta. Abjekti tarkoittaa sellaista tunnistamatonta pelkoa, joka purkautuu tietoisuuteen piilotajunnan ja tietoisuuden vuorovaikutuksen ansiosta. Sekä abjekti että jouissance ilmenevät tietoisuudessa ahdistuksen kokemuksena, johon amerikkalainen unelma tarjoaa ratkaisun asettamalla abstrakteja ja konkreettisia tavoitteita, jotka yksilön tulisi saavuttaa. Amerikkalainen unelma ei kuitenkaan koskaan toteudu. Se perustuu liikkeeseen jonka keskiössä on jatkuva muutos ja kehitys.