Potential for Greenhouse Gas Emission Reductions by Using Biomethane as a Road Transportation Fuel

The aim of this thesis is to study whether the use of biomethane as a transportation fuel is reasonable from climate change perspective. In order to identify potentials and challenges for the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, this dissertation focuses on GHG emission comparisons, on feasibility studies and on the effects of various calculation methodologies. The GHG emissions calculations are carried out by using life cycle assessment (LCA) methodologies. The aim of these LCA studies is to figure out the key parameters affecting the GHG emission saving potential of biomethane production and use and to give recommendations related to methodological choices. The feasibility studies are also carried out from the life cycle perspective by dividing the biomethane production chain for various operators along the life cycle of biomethane in order to recognize economic bottlenecks. Biomethane use in the transportation sector leads to GHG emission reductions compared to fossil transportation fuels in most cases. In addition, electricity and heat production from landfill gas, biogas or biomethane leads to GHG reductions as well. Electricity production for electric vehicles is also a potential route to direct biogas or biomethane energy to transportation sector. However, various factors along the life cycle of biomethane affect the GHG reduction potentials. Furthermore, the methodological selections have significant effects on the results. From economic perspective, there are factors related to different operators along the life cycle of biomethane, which are not encouraging biomethane use in the transportation sector. To minimize the greenhouse gas emissions from the life cycle of biomethane, waste feedstock should be preferred. In addition, energy consumption, methane leakages, digestate utilization and the current use of feedstock or biogas are also key factors. To increase the use of biomethane in the transportation sector, political steering is needed to improve the feasibility for the operators. From methodological perspective, it is important to recognize the aim of the life cycle assessment study. The life cycle assessment studies can be divided into two categories: 1.) To produce average GHG information of biomethane to evaluate the acceptability of biomethane use compared to fossil transportation fuels. 2.) To produce GHG information of biomethane related to actual decision-making situations. This helps to figure out the actual GHG emission changes in cases when feedstock, biogas or biomethane are already in other use. For example directing biogas from electricity production to transportation use does not necessarily lead to additional GHG emission reductions. The use of biomethane seems to have a lot of potential for the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions as a transportation fuel. However, there are various aspects related to production processes, to the current use of feedstock or biogas and to the feasibility that have to be taken into account.

From emerging opportunities to successful business networks – evidence from bioenergy

Increasing renewable energy utilization is a challenge that is tried to be solved in different ways. One of the most promising options for renewable energy is different biomasses, and the bioenergy field offers numerous emerging business opportunities. The actors in the field have rarely all the needed know-how and resources for exploiting these opportunities, and thus it is reasonable to seize them in cooperation. Networking is not an easy task to carry out, however, and in addition to its advantages for the firms engaged, it sets numerous challenges as well. The development of a network is a result of several steps firms need to take. In order to gain optimal advantage of their networks, firms need to weigh out with whom, why and how they should cooperate. In addition, everything does not depend on the firms themselves, as several factors in the external environment set their own enablers and barriers for cooperation. The formation of a network around a business opportunity is thus a multiphase process. The objective of this thesis is to depict this process via a step-by-step analysis and thus increase understanding on the whole development path from an entrepreneurial opportunity to a successful business network. The empirical evidence has been gathered by discussing the opportunities of animal manure refinement to biogas and forest biomass utilization for heating in Finland. The thesis comprises two parts. The first part provides an overview of the study, and the second part includes five research publications. The results reveal that it is essential to identify and analyze all the steps in the development process of a network, and several frameworks are used in the thesis to analyze these steps. The frameworks combine the views of theory and practical experiences of empirical study, and thus give new multifaceted views for the discussion on SME networking. The results indicate that the ground for cooperation should be investigated adequately by taking account of the preconditions in all the three contexts in which the actors operate: the social context, the region and the institutional environment. In case the project advances to exploitation, the assets and objectives of the actors should be paired off, which sets a need for relationships and sub-networks differing in breadth and depth. Different relationships and networks require different kinds of maintenance and management. Moreover, the actors should have the capability to change the formality or strategy of the relationships if needed. The drivers for these changes come along with the changing environment, which causes changes in the objectives of the actors and this way in the whole network. Bioenergy as the empirical field of the study represents well an industrial field with many emerging opportunities, a motley group of actors, and sensitivity for fast changes.

Biopolttoaineiden ongelmat

Biopolttoaineilla on tärkeä rooli tulevaisuuden energiahuollossa. Biopolttoaineiden käyttöä pyritäänkin lisäämään monin keinoin. Ensimmäisen sukupolven biopolttoaineet ovat jo olleet aikansa markkinoilla ja toisen sukupolven polttoaineet ovat saapumassa markkinoille. Tässä työssä tutkitaan eri biopolttoaine vaihtoehtoja ensimmäisestä toiseen sukupolveen sekä tutkitaan niiden käytön ongelmia. Biopolttoaineiden käyttö on lisääntynyt huomattavasti viime vuosien aikoina, jonka myötä on tullut esiin monia ongelmia. Ongelmia aiheuttavat niin ilmastolliset, taloudelliset, teknologiset kuin valtapoliittiset asiat.

Bio- ja maakaasu liikennepolttoaineena Suomessa

Työssä tarkastellaan bio- ja maakaasun käyttöä Suomen tieliikenteen polttoaineena. Työn lähtökohtana on selvittää kaasukäyttöisten ajoneuvojen käytön kannattavuutta Suomessa ja niiden etuja muihin polttoaineisiin nähden. Tutkielmassa perehdytään erityisesti biokaasun käyttöön fossiilisten polttoaineiden korvaajana ja mitä vaatimuksia sen käytön lisääminen edellyttää. Työssä perehdytään kaasujen tuotantomenetelmiin, jakeluun, taloudelliseen kannattavuuteen, ympäristöystävällisyyteen ja tulevaisuuden näkymiin.

Liikennebiokaasun jakelu Mikkelin seudulla: teknologia-, kustannus- ja kannattavuustarkastelu

Tämän diplomityön tarkoituksena oli tarkastella biokaasun liikennekäyttöön tarvittavia teknologisia ratkaisuja ja tehdä kustannusvertailua erilaisten jakeluvaihtoehtojen välillä Mikkelin ympäristön case-tapauksessa. Työn teoriaosassa on esitelty teknologisia vaihtoehtoja liikennebiokaasun jakelulle sekä eri teknologioiden kustannuksia. Tietämys eri teknologiavaihtoehdoista ja niiden hinnoista on muodostettu kirjallisuuskatsauksen, asiantuntijahaastatteluiden sekä saatujen tarjousten perusteella. Työn empiriaosassa on tarkasteltu kolmen eri jakeluskenaarion kustannuksia käyttäen elinkaarikustannuslaskentaa, sekä toimintoperusteista kustannuslaskentaa. Liikennebiokaasun jakelun kustannuksiksi työn case-tapauksissa saatiin jakelutavasta riippuen 0,37 €/kg – 1,02 €/kg (2,64 snt/kWh – 7,29 snt/kWh). Edullisin vaihtoehto liikennebiokaasun jakeluun on työn perusteella myydä tuotettu kaasu tuotantolaitoksella. Jos kaasua siirretään tankattavaksi tytärasemalle, on vaihtoehtoina paineistettu kaasu siirtokontein, nesteytetty kaasu trailerilla tai putkisiirto. Halvin siirtokeino tämän työn skenaarioissa oli kaasun putkisiirto.

Naudanlanta biokaasulaitosraaka-aineena, käsittely ja logistiikka

Maatalouden lietelannasta saatavien ravinteiden talteenotto ja kierrätys ovat viime aikoina nousseet yhä tärkeämmäksi tavoitteeksi. Ravinteiden tehokas kierrätystapa saadaan ai-kaiseksi käsittelemällä lietelantaa. Lannan käsittelyketjuja on monenlaisia; tässä työssä naudan lannan käsittelyketju muodostuu separoinnista ja mädätyksestä. Tämän diplomityön tarkoituksena oli selvittää naudan lannan mekaanisen separoinnin ja logistiikan kannattavuus märkämädätys- ja kuivamädätyskäsittelyketjussa. Käsittelyketju-jen kannattavuus tai kannattamattomuus on esitetty eri skenaarioissa muodostettujen kus-tannuslaskentojen perusteella. Skenaarioiden kustannuslaskelmat ovat toisiinsa verratta-vissa, jolloin ne voidaan asettaa niin ikään paremmuusjärjestykseen. Viides skenaario ei ole suoraan verrattavissa muihin skenaarioihin, koska siinä lannankäsittelyketjua on tar-kasteltu eri näkökulmasta, keskittämällä suurimmalle maatilalle. Mekaanisista separaattoreista tarkasteltiin työssä ruuvipuristinta, dekantterilinkoa ja ul-koistettua separointipalvelua. Lannan logistiikkakustannuksissa huomioitiin lannan kulje-tusta traktori- ja säiliöautolla tai traktorilla. Separoinnin kustannus liitettiin osaksi logis-tiikkakustannusta. Työn tuloksien perusteella voidaan todeta dekantterilingon separointi-kustannuksen olevan taloudellisesti kannattamattomin johtuen pienestä lantakapasiteetista ja separaattorin korkeasta investointihinnasta. Ravinteiden osalta linko osoittautui tehok-kaimmaksi menetelmäksi erottamaan ravinteet eri jakeisiin. Lannan käsittely separointipalvelulla oli edullisin skenaario, jonka vuosittaiseksi kustan-nukseksi saatiin säiliö- ja kuorma-autolla lantaa kuljetettaessa 58 700 € ja traktorilla kul-jetettaessa 60 400 €. Kallein lannan käsittely oli dekantterilingolla, jonka vuosittaiseksi kustannukseksi saatiin lantaa säiliö- ja kuorma-autolla kuljetettaessa 121 000 € ja trakto-rilla kuljetettaessa 123 300 €. Lannan separointi maatilalla osoittautui kannattavammaksi kuin käsittelemättömän lietteen kuljetus biokaasulaitokselle.

Carbon sources for Power-to-Gas applications in the Finnish energy system

This thesis is done as a part of the NEOCARBON project. The aim of NEOCARBON project is to study a fully renewable energy system utilizing Power-to-Gas or Power-to-Liquid technology for energy storage. Power-to-Gas consists of two main operations: Hydrogen production via electrolysis and methane production via methanation. Methanation requires carbon dioxide and hydrogen as a raw material. This thesis studies the potential carbon dioxide sources within Finland. The different sources are ranked using the cost and energy penalty of the carbon capture, carbon biogenity and compatibility with Power-to-Gas. It can be concluded that in Finland there exists enough CO2 point sources to provide national PtG system with sufficient amounts of carbon. Pulp and paper industry is single largest producer of biogenic CO2 in Finland. It is possible to obtain single unit capable of grid balancing operations and energy transformations via Power-to-Gas and Gas-to-Power by coupling biogas plants with biomethanation and CHP units.

Economics of Power-to-Gas integration to wastewater treatment plant

Solar and wind power produce electricity irregularly. This irregular power production is problematic and therefore production can exceed the need. Thus sufficient energy storage solutions are needed. Currently there are some storages, such as flywheel, but they are quite short-term. Power-to-Gas (P2G) offers a solution to store energy as a synthetic natural gas. It also improves nation’s energy self-sufficiency. Power-to-Gas can be integrated to an industrial or a municipal facility to reduce production costs. In this master’s thesis the integration of Power-to-Gas technologies to wastewater treatment as a part of the VTT’s Neo-Carbon Energy project is studied. Power-to-Gas produces synthetic methane (SNG) from water and carbon dioxide with electricity. This SNG can be considered as stored energy. Basic wastewater treatment technologies and the production of biogas in the treatment plant are studied. The utilisation of biogas and SNG in heat and power production and in transportation is also studied. The integration of the P2G to wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) is examined mainly from economic view. First the mass flows of flowing materials are calculated and after that the economic impact based on the mass flows. The economic efficiency is evaluated with Net Present Value method. In this thesis it is also studied the overall profitability of the integration and the key economic factors.

Finnish perceptions on management accounting systems: towards an upgraded sophistication model

This study is based on a large survey study of over 1500 Finnish companies’ usage, needs and implementation difficulties of management accounting systems. The study uses quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods to answer the research questions. The empirical data used in the study was gathered through structured interviews with randomly selected companies of varying sizes and industries. The study answers the three research questions by analyzing the characteristics and behaviors of companies working in Finland. The study found five distinctive groups of companies according to the characteristics of their cost information and management accounting system use. The study also showed that the state of cost information and management accounting systems depends on the industry and size of the companies. It was found that over 50% of the companies either did not know how their systems could be updated or saw systems as inadequate. The qualitative side also highlighted the needs for tailored and integrated management accounting systems for creating more value to the managers of companies. The major inhibitors of new system implementation were the lack of both monetary and human resources. Through the use of mixed methods and design science a new and improved sophistication model is created based on previous research results combined with the information gathered from previous literature. The sophistication model shows the different stages of management accounting systems in use and what companies can achieve with the implementation and upgrading of their systems.

Survival competencies in SMEs in changing business environments

The thesis examines the competencies that enable business survival in changing business environments from the perspective of Russian and Finnish micro, small, and medium-sized enterprises in the field of forest industry. Additionally, it studies the competence transformation necessary in SMEs for successful continuation of business operations when a firm considers transferring its business to another industry. The dissertation builds a holistic firm-level view of survival competencies for SMEs facing changes in their business environments. The holistic firm-level view of competencies includes both the individual-level and the firm-level perspectives, regardless of the position of the person in a firm. The findings highlight the importance of high-level individual competencies and the ability to perform versatile tasks in a firm. In addition, continuous business environment scanning, self-evaluation of personal competencies, willingness to renew and change, open-mindedness, and a readiness to network, are competencies that belong to and need to be taken care of by everybody – employees and employers - in a firm. In addition to previous competencies, an ability to manage every-day business also needs to be embedded in SME owners/managers. Furthermore, Russian SMEs seem to be more proactive in change situations, when compared with Finnish SMEs, which are used to operate in a more stable business environment. In conclusion, it can be said that the thesis adds to SME literature by introducing the concept of ‘SME-level competencies’, a combination of previously discussed organisational and networking competencies which are needed in order to survive through change. Furthermore, the thesis concludes with new competence classifications, such as operational and change competencies, which offer new information concerning the required competencies by which a firm may reduce the resistance to change that can hinder business renewal. For SME practitioners, the study suggests proper preparation and proactive operations in their business to reduce the influence of endless changes, and reminds SME owners/managers that changes are, however, a significant source of new business opportunities. For educational players, the study suggests upgrading educational and training systems by improving the training as regards attitudes towards work, and especially training in the comprehensive working abilities needed in SMEs to master diverse tasks. Finally, for public actors the study suggests providing stronger support to entrepreneurs by boosting SMEs entrepreneurial conditions and the existing business possibilities in change situations. This can be done by encouraging a legislative and entrepreneurial climate that responds better to the demands of SMEs.

Keskikokoisen maatilan biokaasu- ja aurinkosähköratkaisujen kannattavuus Etelä-Savossa

Tässä kandidaatintyössä perehdytään biokaasun syntyprosessiin ja sen hyödyntämismahdollisuuksiin, sekä vertaillaan biokaasun tuotannon määrää Suomessa ja Saksassa. Työssä tarkastellaan biokaasuvoimalan kannattavuutta keskikokoisen maatilan yhteydessä Etelä-Savossa ja käydään läpi biokaasuvoimalalle Suomessa myönnettäviä tukimuotoja. Tukimuotojen lisäksi käydään läpi erilaisia lupia ja hyväksyntöjä, joita maatilan yhteyteen rakennettava biokaasu-voimalaitos tarvitsee. Työn toisessa osassa käydään läpi aurinkoenergian hyödyntämismahdollisuuksia, aurinkosähköjärjestelmän komponentteja, sekä perehdytään aurinkopaneelin toimintaperiaatteeseen. Tarkastellaan biokaasuvoimalan lisäksi myös aurinkovoimalan kannattavuutta maatilan yhteydessä ja vertaillaan biokaasu- ja aurinkovoimalan ominaisuuksia keskenään. Lisäksi vertaillaan aurinkosähkön tuotantoa Suomessa ja Saksassa. Työn tavoitteena on selvittää biokaasu- ja aurinkosähkövoimalan kannattavuus esimerkkimaatilalla. Biokaasulaitoksen hinta-arvio saatiin vastauksena tarjouspyyntöön ja aurinkosähköjärjestelmän hinta arvioitiin kotimaisten toimittajien aurinkosähköpakettien hintojen avulla. Biokaasuvoimalan sähköntuottoennuste sekä huolto- ja käyttökustannukset perustuvat kirjallisuudesta saatuihin arvoihin. Aurinkovoimalan sähköntuottoennuste ja paneelien suuntauksen vaikutusta tuotantoon laskettiin PVGIS:n laskurilla sekä HOMER-ohjelmistolla. Kannattavuuslaskelmien perusteella kumpikaan voimalaitostyyppi ei tutkituilla voimalaitosten suuruuksilla ole kannattava 20 tai edes 30 vuoden pitoajalla esimerkkimaatilalla nykyisellä sähkönhinnalla ja tukitasolla. Aurinkosähköjärjestelmälle saadaan kuitenkin 20 vuoden takaisinmaksuaika, jos se hankitaan ilman lainarahaa. Tällöin voidaan ajatella, että laitos on kannattava. Biokaasulaitoksen kannattavuutta parantaisivat tukien ja sähkön hinnan nousun ohella kaasun ja lämmön myyntimahdollisuudet, joita esimerkkimaatilalla ei ole. Aurinkovoimalan kannattavuutta parantaisivat puolestaan tukien ja korkeamman sähkön hinnan lisäksi paremmin paneelien tuotantoa seuraava kulutus, jolloin pienempi osuus sähköstä päätyisi myyntiin.