Statistical Analysis and Numerics of Heat Exchanger Models

The identifiability of the parameters of a heat exchanger model without phase change was studied in this Master’s thesis using synthetically made data. A fast, two-step Markov chain Monte Carlo method (MCMC) was tested with a couple of case studies and a heat exchanger model. The two-step MCMC-method worked well and decreased the computation time compared to the traditional MCMC-method. The effect of measurement accuracy of certain control variables to the identifiability of parameters was also studied. The accuracy used did not seem to have a remarkable effect to the identifiability of parameters. The use of the posterior distribution of parameters in different heat exchanger geometries was studied. It would be computationally most efficient to use the same posterior distribution among different geometries in the optimisation of heat exchanger networks. According to the results, this was possible in the case when the frontal surface areas were the same among different geometries. In the other cases the same posterior distribution can be used for optimisation too, but that will give a wider predictive distribution as a result. For condensing surface heat exchangers the numerical stability of the simulation model was studied. As a result, a stable algorithm was developed.

Optimization of energy in a pulp mill

This study presents examination of ways to increase power generation in pulp mills. The main purpose was to identify and verify the best ways of power generation growth. The literature part of this study presented operation of energy pulp mill departments, energy consumption and generation by the recovery and power boilers. The second chapter of this part described the main directions for increase of electricity generation rise of black liquor dry solid content, increase of main steam parameters, flue gas heat recovery technologies, feed water and combustion air preheating. The third chapter of the literature part presented possible technical, environment and corrosion risks appeared from described alternatives. In the experimental part of this study, calculations and results of possible models with alternatives was presented. The possible combinations of alternatives were generated in 44 `models of energy pulp mill. The target of this part was define extra electricity generation after alternatives using and estimate profitability of generated models. The calculations were made by computer programme PROSIM. In the conclusions, the results were estimated on the basis of extra electricity generation and equipment design data of models. The profitability of cases was verified by their payback periods and additional incomes.

Financial and Environmental Impacts of a Dry Port to Facilitate Competitiveness of Two Major Transit Seaports of Finland

Environmental problems and issues have received more and more attention during the last decades. Reasons for this are different increased external costs such as congestion, CO2 emission, noise and accident costs. Transportation sector is the only sector with increasing external costs. The EU will increase its attention in decreasing the external costs of transport. Aim of this research was to find out if a dry port solution could decrease costs of transport, especially external costs. Dry port concept is an intermodal transport system, where inland transport between port and dry port is performed by rail transport instead of traditional road transport. In addition, dry ports offer similar services as ports. Research is conducted by performing a literature review about dry port concept and costs of transport, especially external costs of transport. Financial and environmental impacts of the dry port concept are studied by comparing costs of road and rail transport by cost accounting and with a simulation model. Location of dry port is researched with gravitational models. Results of the literature review are that rail transport is environmentally friendlier mode of transport than road transport. Cost model and simulation model show that if only costs of freight movement are considered, rail transport is more inexpensive transport mode than road transport in terms of internal and external costs. Because of that dry port concept could decrease costs of transport, especially external costs. Results of gravitational models are that city of Kouvola is in a good position to be a dry port. Russian transit traffic through Finland improves location of Kouvola to be a dry port.

Insulation System in an Integrated Motor Compressor

A high-speed and high-voltage solid-rotor induction machine provides beneficial features for natural gas compressor technology. The mechanical robustness of the machine enables its use in an integrated motor-compressor. The technology uses a centrifugal compressor, which is mounted on the same shaft with the high-speed electrical machine driving it. No gearbox is needed as the speed is determined by the frequency converter. The cooling is provided by the process gas, which flows through the motor and is capable of transferring the heat away from the motor. The technology has been used in the compressors in the natural gas supply chain in the central Europe. New areas of application include natural gas compressors working at the wellheads of the subsea gas reservoir. A key challenge for the design of such a motor is the resistance of the stator insulation to the raw natural gas from the well. The gas contains water and heavy hydrocarbon compounds and it is far harsher than the sales gas in the natural gas supply network. The objective of this doctoral thesis is to discuss the resistance of the insulation to the raw natural gas and the phenomena degrading the insulation. The presence of partial discharges is analyzed in this doctoral dissertation. The breakdown voltage of the gas is measured as a function of pressure and gap distance. The partial discharge activity is measured on small samples representing the windings of the machine. The electrical field behavior is also modeled by finite element methods. Based on the measurements it has been concluded that the discharges are expected to disappear at gas pressures above 4 – 5 bar. The disappearance of discharges is caused by the breakdown strength of the gas, which increases as the pressure increases. Based on the finite element analysis, the physical length of a discharge seen in the PD measurements at atmospheric pressure was approximated to be 40 – 120 m. The chemical aging of the insulation when exposed to raw natural gas is discussed based on a vast set of experimental tests with the gas mixture representing the real gas mixture at the wellhead. The mixture was created by mixing dry hydrocarbon gas, heavy hydrocarbon compounds, monoethylene glycol, and water. The mixture was chosen to be more aggressive by increasing the amount of liquid substances. Furthermore, the temperature and pressure were increased, which resulted in accelerated test conditions. The time required to detect severe degradation was thus decreased. The test program included a comparison of materials, an analysis of the e ects of di erent compounds in the gas mixture, namely water and heavy hydrocarbons, on the aging, an analysis of the e ects of temperature and exposure duration, and also an analysis on the e ect of sudden pressure changes on the degradation of the insulating materials. It was found in the tests that an insulation consisting of mica, glass, and epoxy resin can tolerate the raw natural gas, but it experiences some degradation. The key material in the composite insulation is the resin, which largely defines the performance of the insulation system. The degradation of the insulation is mostly determined by the amount of gas mixture di used into it. The di usion was seen to follow Fick’s second law, but the coe cients were not accurately defined. The di usion was not sensitive to temperature, but it was dependent upon the thermodynamic state of the gas mixture, in other words, the amounts of liquid components in the gas. The weight increase observed was mostly related to heavy hydrocarbon compounds, which act as plasticizers in the epoxy resin. The di usion of these compounds is determined by the crosslink density of the resin. Water causes slight changes in the chemical structure, but these changes do not significantly contribute to the aging phenomena. Sudden changes in pressure can lead to severe damages in the insulation, because the motion of the di used gas is able to create internal cracks in the insulation. Therefore, the di usion only reduces the mechanical strength of the insulation, but the ultimate breakdown can potentially be caused by a sudden drop in the pressure of the process gas.

Influence of Heat Treatment on Strength Properties of Finger-jointed Components

The purpose for the thesis was to study the thermo treatment of finger-jointed wood. The thesis concentrated on examining the tensile and bending strength of finger-jointed and thermo treated wood. The aim was to find out how different treatment temperature levels and adhesives influence the strength of wood that has been finger-jointed before heat treatment. Secondary objectives were to examine the influence of the treatment time at one temperature, determine differences in the strength between the joints in heartwood and sapwood, examine the visual appearance of the finger joints after the treatment and establish possibilities to reach a characteristic strength level corresponding to C14. Only minor differences in strength properties were measured between the finger-jointed wood treatments II and III. A greater difference was shown between these two treatment temperatures I, which lead to reduced strength. The average strength of joints glued with adhesive 2 was higher after treatments II and III compared to those glued with the adhesive 1. At the treatment temperature I, the adhesive 1 strength properties were at the same level compared to the adhesive 2 or better. There were not any significant differences.

Kaatopaikkakaasun hyväksikäyttö lietteen kuivauksessa

Tällä hetkellä suuri osa esikäsiteltyjen jätevesilietteiden loppusijoitusvaihtoehdoista ei pysty kattamaan lopullisesti kasvavien lietemäärien loppusijoitustarvetta, mikä lisää lietteen loppusijoitusta kaatopaikoille. Kuitenkin EU:n tiukentuneen jätehuoltolainsäädännön sekä ilmastonlämpenemisen suurien haasteiden vuoksi, kaatopaikoille sijoitettavien jätteiden määrää täytyy pyrkiä vähentämään. Tämän työn tavoitteena on tutkia jätevedenpuhdistamoilta tulevan lietteen termistä kuivausta yhtenä lietteenkäsittely vaihtoehtona. Tavoitteena on selvittää voidaanko lietettä kuivaamalla saada liete paremmin hyödynnetyksi. Työssä tarkasteltiin yleisesti yhdyskuntalietteen termisessä kuivaamisessa nykyisin käytettäviä menetelmiä, sen ympäristövaikutuksia, energian tarvetta ja kustannuksia sekä siitä saatavaa hyötyä lietteen loppusijoittamisessa. Lisäksi arvioitiin kuinka kaatopaikkakaasun hyödyntäminen soveltuisi lietteen kuivauksessa tarvittavan energian tuotantoon. Työssä tehdyn selvityksen mukaan kaatopaikkakaasua voidaan hyödyntää suhteellisen helposti lämmöntuotannossa ilman merkittäviä laitosmuutoksia tai kaasun puhdistusta. Ongelmana pidettiin kaatopaikkakaasun kuljetuksia, joka on suhteellisen vaikeaa ja taloudellisesti kannattamatonta. Kuitenkin noin 10 km välimatkan säteellä kaatopaikasta sen hyödyntäminen olisi mahdollista. Työn laskelmien mukaan Suomessa hukkaan poltetulla kaatopaikkakaasulla voitaisiin kuivata noin 250 tuhatta tonnia lietettä vuosittain.

Methods for construction and analysis of computational models in systems biology : applications to the modelling of the heat shock response and the self-assembly of intermediate filaments

Systems biology is a new, emerging and rapidly developing, multidisciplinary research field that aims to study biochemical and biological systems from a holistic perspective, with the goal of providing a comprehensive, system- level understanding of cellular behaviour. In this way, it addresses one of the greatest challenges faced by contemporary biology, which is to compre- hend the function of complex biological systems. Systems biology combines various methods that originate from scientific disciplines such as molecu- lar biology, chemistry, engineering sciences, mathematics, computer science and systems theory. Systems biology, unlike “traditional” biology, focuses on high-level concepts such as: network, component, robustness, efficiency, control, regulation, hierarchical design, synchronization, concurrency, and many others. The very terminology of systems biology is “foreign” to “tra- ditional” biology, marks its drastic shift in the research paradigm and it indicates close linkage of systems biology to computer science. One of the basic tools utilized in systems biology is the mathematical modelling of life processes tightly linked to experimental practice. The stud- ies contained in this thesis revolve around a number of challenges commonly encountered in the computational modelling in systems biology. The re- search comprises of the development and application of a broad range of methods originating in the fields of computer science and mathematics for construction and analysis of computational models in systems biology. In particular, the performed research is setup in the context of two biolog- ical phenomena chosen as modelling case studies: 1) the eukaryotic heat shock response and 2) the in vitro self-assembly of intermediate filaments, one of the main constituents of the cytoskeleton. The range of presented approaches spans from heuristic, through numerical and statistical to ana- lytical methods applied in the effort to formally describe and analyse the two biological processes. We notice however, that although applied to cer- tain case studies, the presented methods are not limited to them and can be utilized in the analysis of other biological mechanisms as well as com- plex systems in general. The full range of developed and applied modelling techniques as well as model analysis methodologies constitutes a rich mod- elling framework. Moreover, the presentation of the developed methods, their application to the two case studies and the discussions concerning their potentials and limitations point to the difficulties and challenges one encounters in computational modelling of biological systems. The problems of model identifiability, model comparison, model refinement, model inte- gration and extension, choice of the proper modelling framework and level of abstraction, or the choice of the proper scope of the model run through this thesis.

Role and regulatory mechanisms of heat shock factor 2

Protein homeostasis is essential for cells to prosper and survive. Various forms of stress, such as elevated temperatures, oxidative stress, heavy metals or bacterial infections cause protein damage, which might lead to improper folding and formation of toxic protein aggregates. Protein aggregation is associated with serious pathological conditions such as Alzheimer’s and Huntington’s disease. The heat shock response is a defense mechanism that protects the cell against protein-damaging stress. Its ancient origin and high conservation among eukaryotes suggest that the response is crucial for survival. The main regulator of the heat shock response is the transcription factor heat shock factor 1 (HSF1), which induces transcription of genes encoding protective molecular chaperones. In vertebrates, a family of four HSFs exists (HSF1-4), with versatile functions not only in coping with acute stress, but also in development, longevity and cancer. Thus, knowledge of the HSFs will aid in our understanding on how cells survive suboptimal circumstances, but will also provide insights into normal physiological processes as well as diseaseassociated conditions. In this study, the function and regulation of HSF2 have been investigated. Earlier gene inactivation experiments in mice have revealed roles for HSF2 in development, particularly in corticogenesis and spermatogenesis. Here, we demonstrate that HSF2 holds a role also in the heat shock response and influences stress-induced expression of heat shock proteins. Intriguingly, DNA-binding activity of HSF2 upon stress was dependent on the presence of intact HSF1, suggesting functional interplay between HSF1 and HSF2. The underlying mechanism for this phenomenon could be configuration of heterotrimers between the two factors, a possibility that was experimentally verified. By changing the levels of HSF2, the expression of HSF1-HSF2 heterotrimer target genes was altered, implementing HSF2 as a modulator of HSF-mediated transcription. The results further indicate that HSF2 activity is dependent on its concentration, which led us to ask the question of how accurate HSF2 levels are achieved. Using mouse spermatogenesis as a model system, HSF2 was found to be under direct control of miR-18, a miRNA belonging to the miR-17~92 cluster/Oncomir-1 and whose physiological function had remained unclear. Investigations on spermatogenesis are severely hampered by the lack of cell systems that would mimic the complex differentiation processes that constitute male germ cell development. Therefore, to verify that HSF2 is regulated by miR-18 in spermatogenesis, a novel method named T-GIST (Transfection of Germ cells in Intact Seminiferous Tubules) was developed. Employing this method, the functional consequences of miR-18-mediated regulation in vivo were demonstrated; inhibition of miR- 18 led to increased expression of HSF2 and altered the expression of HSF2 target genes Ssty2 and Speer4a. Consequently, the results link miR-18 to HSF2-mediated processes such as germ cell maturation and quality control and provide miR-18 with a physiological role in gene expression during spermatogenesis.Taken together, this study presents compelling evidence that HSF2 is a transcriptional regulator in the heat shock response and establishes the concept of physical interplay between HSF2 and HSF1 and functional consequences thereof. This is also the first study describing miRNA-mediated regulation of an HSF.

Electrical Equivalent Circuit for Dry Bacteriorhodopsin Sensor

Bacteriorhodopsin (BR) is a photosensitive protein which functions as a light-driven proton pump. Due to its photoactivity, BR could be used in photosensing and information processing which has inspired researchers to study the photoelectric response and the appropriate measurement instrumentation for BR. In this thesis, the measurement instrumentation connected to a dry BR sensor was confirmed to affect the photovoltage response measured by using voltage amplifiers. Changing of the input impedance of the measurement instrumentation was shown to alter a part of the measured photovoltage response. The photocurrent measurements using transimpedance amplifier and the presented electrical equivalent circuit were used to show that the photocurrent measurements have no significant effect on the photoelectric response. The photocurrent was shown to be a derivate of the photovoltage response measured from the dry BR sensor when it was compared to the response measured with a voltage amplifier. This confirmed that another part of the photovoltage response was not affected by the measurement instrumentation. The time-variant behavior of the dry BR sensor was confirmed in both the photocurrent and the photovoltage measurements. This was caused by the fact that the capacitance of the dry BR sensor changes with the excitation light intensity.

Segregation of powder mixtures in silos with particular reference to dry mineral-based construction materials

Segregering eller segregation är ett fenomen som kan förekomma inom olika områden av samhället. Inom samhällsvetenskaperna kan segregering definieras som det rumsliga åtskiljandet av befolkningsgrupper på urval av ras eller etniskt ursprung, kön, social härkomst, religion, ålder, yrke, osv. Segregering av befolkningsgrupper sker ofta mer eller mindre frivilligt och är motsatsen till integration. Inom partikelteknologi definieras segregering oftast som det rumsliga åtskiljandet av beståndsdelarna i en blandning av olika partiklar. Segregering sker då på urval av bl.a. partiklarnas storlek, densitet, form, elektrostatiska eller mekaniska egenskaper, och kan beskrivas som motsatsen till blandning. Segregeringsmekanismer används för att förklara hur och varför en partikelblandning segregerar samt vad slutresultatet i form av den rumsliga fördelningen av partiklarna blir till följd av att blandningen utsetts för en viss behandling. I denna avhandling har segregering av partikelblandningar och speciellt torra mineralbaserade byggmaterial (t.ex. murbruk) till följd av lagring i siloer studerats. Vid industriell produktion av mineralbaserade byggmaterial används siloer för korttidslagring av slutprodukterna precis innan förpackning. Segregering leder till kraftiga variationer i sammansättningen för partikelströmmen ut ur silon, vilket gör att slutprodukterna inte uppfyller kvalitetskraven och kan därmed inte säljas till kunder. Detta leder till arbetsam och dyr bearbetning (återcirkulation) av produkterna med påföljder för produktionsekonomin samt hållbara utvecklingen. I avhandlingen identifierades de väsentligaste segregeringsmekanismerna för torra mineralbaserade byggmaterial i siloer. Dessutom klargjordes effekterna av materialegenskaper, processbetingelser och siloparametrar. Slutligen behandlas möjliga åtgärder för minskning av partikelsegregering i siloer samt tillämpning av matematiska metoder för simulering av partikelflöden med hjälp av datorer.

Fundamentals of heat transfer

Following over 170+ pages and additional appendixes are formed based on content of Course: Fundamentals of Heat Transfer. Mainly this summarizes relevant parts on Book of Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer (Incropera), but also other references introducing the same concepts are included. Student’s point of view has been consideredwith following highlights: (1) Relevant topics are presented in a nutshell to provide fast digestion of principles of heat transfer. (2) Appendixes include terminology dictionary. (3) Totally 22 illustrating examples are connecting theory to practical applications and quantifying heat transfer to understandable forms as: temperatures, heat transfer rates, heat fluxes, resistances and etc. (4) Most important Learning outcomes are presented for each topic separately. The Book, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer (Incropera), is certainly recommended for those going beyond basic knowledge of heat transfer. Lecture Notes consists of four primary content-wise objectives: (1) Give understanding to physical mechanisms of heat transfer, (2)Present basic concepts and terminology relevant for conduction, convection and radiation (3) Introduce thermal performance analysis methods for steady state and transient conduction systems. (4) Provide fast-to-digest phenomenological understanding required for basic design of thermal models

Mädätysjäännöksen rakeistus, terminen kuivaus ja energiahyötykäyttö

Tutkimuksen tavoitteena oli kartoittaa alueellisen jäteyhtiön Kymenlaakson Jäte Oy:n mahdollisuuksia rakeistaa ja termisesti kuivata mekaanisesti kuivattua mädätysjäännöstä sekä mahdollisuuksia toimittaa termisesti kuivattua materiaalia energiahyötykäyttöön. Tutkimuksessa selvitettiin myös kokemuksia lattialämmityksen käyttämisestä mädätysjäännöksen kuivaukseen. Tutkimuksessa perehdyttiin erilaisiin rakeistus- ja kuivausmenetelmiin sekä termisen kuivurin valintaan vaikuttaviin asioihin. Kuvaukset perustuvat kirjallisuudesta ja internetistä saatuihin tietoihin. Tekniikkakuvausten pohjalta lähdettiin kyselemään tarjouksia termisiä kuivauslaitteistoja myyviltä yrityksiltä. Tarjoukset pyydettiin kuiva-ainepitoisuuden muutokselle 30 %:sta 90 %:iin ja oletettiin, että kuivaukseen on käytettävissä lämpöä viideltä kaatopaikkakaasua käyttävältä mikroturbiinilta. Tutkimuksen aikana saatiin tarjous kuudelta yritykseltä. Saadut tarjoukset esiteltiin tiivistetysti raportissa ja kokonaisuudessaan ne sisällytettiin Kymenlaakson Jäte Oy:n laajempaan raporttiin, joka ei ole julkinen. Yritykset antoivat hyvin erilaisia tietoja siitä, mitä tarjoukseen sisältyy, joten tarjoukset eivät olleet suoraan vertailukelpoisia. Tarjouksista myös havaittiin, että jos Mäkikylän biokaasulaitokselta vastaanotettaisiin enimmäismäärä (19 500 t/a) mädätysjäännöstä, mikroturbiineilta saatava lämpömäärä ei riittäisi kuivaamaan kaikkea mädätysjäännöstä 90 % kuiva-ainepitoisuuteen. Tutkimuksen aikana huomattiin myös, että sitovan tarjouksen saamiseksi mädätysjäännös tulee toimittaa testattavaksi, jolloin saadaan vahvistus kuivausmenetelmän soveltuvuudesta kyseiselle materiaalille. Tutkimuksessa selvitettiin myös, minkälaisia kokemuksia löytyy lattialämmityksen käyttämisestä kuivaukseen niin Suomesta kuin maailmalta ja voiko menetelmää käyttää mädätysjäännöksen kuivaukseen. Kyseistä menetelmää on käytetty tehostamaan aurinkokuivausta, joten tutkimuksen aikana perehdyttiin erityisesti aurinkokuivaukseen liittyviin tieteellisiin artikkeleihin. Lattialämmityksen käytöstä löytyi niin heikkouksia kuin vahvuuksia. Suomessa aurinkokuivauksen ja lattialämmityksen yhdistelmä ei ole kuitenkaan päätynyt laajaan käyttöön ja syynä voidaan nähdä muun muassa kylmät ja pimeät vuodenajat sekä suuri pinta-alan tarve. Tutkimusraportissa selvitettiin lisäksi polttolaitosten edustajien kiinnostusta ja rajoituksia ottaa vastaan termisesti kuivattua mädätysjäännöstä. Tutkimuksen aikana otettiin yhteyttä alle 100 km etäisyydellä Kymenlaakson Jäte Oy:stä sijaitsevien jätteenpolttoluvan omaavien yritysten edustajiin. Saatuja vastauksia käsiteltiin tiivistetysti raportissa ja vastaukset sisällytettiin kokonaisuudessaan Kymenlaakson Jäte Oy:n laajempaan raporttiin, joka ei ole julkinen. Puhelinhaastattelujen pohjalta nähtiin, että yrityksillä on kiinnostusta materiaalia kohtaan, mutta samalla vastauksiin vaikuttavat mädätysjäännöksen analyysitulokset. Poltto-ominaisuuksiin liittyvät analyysit tullaan toteuttamaan vuoden 2012 aikana. Laitoksilla oli myös vaihtelevia rajoituksia materiaalia kohtaan, mutta analyysituloksista riippuen materiaalia voidaan hyödyntää energiana tuhansia tai jopa kymmeniä tuhansia tonneja vuodessa alle 100 km etäisyydellä Kymenlaakson Jäte Oy:stä.