Trigger and data link system for CMS Resistive Plate Chambers at the LHC accelerator

The purpose of the work was to realize a high-speed digital data transfer system for RPC muon chambers in the CMS experiment on CERN’s new LHC accelerator. This large scale system took many years and many stages of prototyping to develop, and required the participation of tens of people. The system interfaces to Frontend Boards (FEB) at the 200,000-channel detector and to the trigger and readout electronics in the control room of the experiment. The distance between these two is about 80 metres and the speed required for the optic links was pushing the limits of available technology when the project was started. Here, as in many other aspects of the design, it was assumed that the features of readily available commercial components would develop in the course of the design work, just as they did. By choosing a high speed it was possible to multiplex the data from some the chambers into the same fibres to reduce the number of links needed. Further reduction was achieved by employing zero suppression and data compression, and a total of only 660 optical links were needed. Another requirement, which conflicted somewhat with choosing the components a late as possible was that the design needed to be radiation tolerant to an ionizing dose of 100 Gy and to a have a moderate tolerance to Single Event Effects (SEEs). This required some radiation test campaigns, and eventually led to ASICs being chosen for some of the critical parts. The system was made to be as reconfigurable as possible. The reconfiguration needs to be done from a distance as the electronics is not accessible except for some short and rare service breaks once the accelerator starts running. Therefore reconfigurable logic is extensively used, and the firmware development for the FPGAs constituted a sizable part of the work. Some special techniques needed to be used there too, to achieve the required radiation tolerance. The system has been demonstrated to work in several laboratory and beam tests, and now we are waiting to see it in action when the LHC will start running in the autumn 2008.

Paperboard cup with a window

Packaging has to fulfill a lot of demands and the main purpose is to be able to protect the foodstuff packed inside. Typically requirements set on packaging materials reflect the consumer needs. Based on the consumer studies the importance of product visibility is considered as an important property among consumers. However, making the package more transparent the actual shelf life of the product might be reduced. It might have an effect on sensitive foods which contain ingredients vulnerable to light and start to deteriorate more rapidly. The aim for this Masters of Science Thesis was to develop a paperboard cup with a plastic window where different kind of fatty/dry foodstuffs could be stored. The main target was to be able to create an instruction manual how this kind of cup with a window had to be produced without decreasing air tightness and other barrier properties of cupboard material used as a base board. The focus in this work was on designing a shape of the window and finding critical limits for the size, shape and location of the window in the final paperboard cup. Windows were made by cutting holes with different sizes and shapes to different places in the cup blank by using a model cutter. For the windows one plastic film type was selected due to its low oxygen and water vapour transmission properties. The window film was attached to the cup blank by using hot bar and laser seaming methods. Cup manufacturing was done at Stora Enso InnoCentre, Imatra. As a result critical limits for the place, size and shape of the window could be found. The sealing method had a significant effect on the tightness of the cups. Windows didn’t decrease the grip stiffness of the cup. The cup itself gave better light protection than the plastic film used in the windows. The bigger the window, the less the cup could protect the possible foodstuff. Bursting strength was lower in the windows compared to the cup material itself. From environmental point of view DSD licence fees have to be paid due to the amount of used plastic.When using bigger windows the ratio of plastic to fibres increase. This would raise the DSD fee. However, the amount of material is overall reduced which lowers the fee.

Neurophysiologic diagnosis, clinical symptoms and neuropathologic findings in polyneuropathies

Tausta: Polyneuropatia (PNP) on ääreishermoston sairaus, joka aiheuttaa laaja-alaisia, yleensä symmetrisiä vaurioita ääreishermostossa. PNP:aan johtavia syitä on satoja. Tavoitteet: Löytää parhaat neurofysiologiset menetelmät uremian, myelooman hoidossa käytettävän talidomidin sekä Fabryn taudin aiheuttaman PNP:n diagnosoimiseksi. Fabryn taudissa tutkin lisäksi ohutsäieneuropatian aiheuttamia neuropatologisia löydöksiä iholta otetusta koepalasta. Tutkimuksissa kartoitettiin lisäksi PNP:n aiheuttamien subjektiivisten oireiden korrelaatio neurofysiologisten ja neuropatologisten löydösten kanssa. Munuaisten vajaatoimintaa sairastavilla potilailla tavoitteena oli tutkia dialyysihoidon tehon vaikutusta autonomisen hermoston toimintaan sekä yhden dialyysikerran vaikutusta neurofysiologisiin löydöksiin. Aineisto ja menetelmät: I: Tutkittiin 21 uremiapotilaan sensoristen ja motoristen hermojen vasteet, värinä- sekä lämpötuntokynnykset ennen ja jälkeen hemodialyysin. Subjektiiviset PNP oireet kartoitettiin PNP oireita kysyvillä kaavakkeella. II:12 talidomidi hoitoa saavaa myeloomapotilasta, tutkimuksen menetelmät olivat samat kuin tutkimuksessa I. III: 12 Fabryn tautia sairastavaa potilasta, edellä mainittujen neurofysiologisten tutkimusten lisäksi potilailta otettiin ihobiopsia säären alueelta. Ihobiopsiasta laskettiin ohuiden hermosyiden määrä koepalan värjäyksen jälkeen. Subjektiiviset PNP oireet kartoitettiin kyselykaavakkeella. Sydämen sykevaihtelu tutkittiin levossa taajuustason analyysillä. IV: 32 uremiapotilaan autonomisen hermoston toimintaa tutkittiin sydämen sykevaihtelun aikatason analysillä, paksujen myelinoituneiden säikeiden toimintaa tutkittiin perifeeristen sensoristen hermojen mittauksilla toistetusti noin 2.9 vuoden aikana. Tulokset: Ureemisen PNP:n diagnostiikassa herkimmät tutkimukset ovat F-aaltojen parametrit alaraajojen motorisista hermoista, värinätuntokynnys alaraajoista sekä suralishermon amplitudi. Positiiviset PNP oireet uremiassa korreloivat värinätunto-kynnyksen sekä sensoristen hermojen neurografialöydösten kanssa. Neurofysiologisten tutkimusten ajankohdalla dialyysiajankohtaan nähden ei ole merkitystä. Talidomidi-PNP on pääasiassa sensorinen, mutta motoriset syyt ovat lievästi vaurioituneet. Talidomidi PNP:ssa subjektiiviset oireet korreloivat huonosti neurofysiologisten löydösten kanssa. Fabryn taudissa naisilla on oletettua enemmän ohutsäieneuropatian aiheuttamia oireita ja löydöksiä. Paksujen säikeiden löydöksiä ei tullut esiin. Ohutsäieneuropatian diagnostiikassa ihobiopsia ja kvantitatiiviset tuntokynnysmittaustestit täydentävät toisiaan. Tehokas dialyysi parantaa autonomisen hermoston toimintaa uremiapotilailla. Päätelmät: Erityyppisten polyneuropatioiden diagnostiikassa pitää etukäteen valita PNP tyypille oikeat tutkimusmenetelmät raskaiden tutkimuspatterien vähentämiseksi sekä diagnostiikan parantamiseksi. PNP:n aiheuttamat oireet ja kliiniset löydökset pitää aina tutkia, mutta yksin ne eivät ole herkkiä PNP:n diagnostiikassa.

Non-resorbable glass fibre-reinforced composite with porous surface as bone substitute material: Experimental studies in vitro and in vivo focused on bone-implant interface

The development of load-bearing osseous implant with desired mechanical and surface properties in order to promote incorporation with bone and to eliminate risk of bone resorption and implant failure is a very challenging task. Bone formation and resoption processes depend on the mechanical environment. Certain stress/strain conditions are required to promote new bone growth and to prevent bone mass loss. Conventional metallic implants with high stiffness carry most of the load and the surrounding bone becomes virtually unloaded and inactive. Fibre-reinforced composites offer an interesting alternative to metallic implants, because their mechanical properties can be tailored to be equal to those of bone, by the careful selection of matrix polymer, type of fibres, fibre volume fraction, orientation and length. Successful load transfer at bone-implant interface requires proper fixation between the bone and implant. One promising method to promote fixation is to prepare implants with porous surface. Bone ingrowth into porous surface structure stabilises the system and improves clinical success of the implant. The experimental part of this work was focused on polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) -based composites with dense load-bearing core and porous surface. Three-dimensionally randomly orientated chopped glass fibres were used to reinforce the composite. A method to fabricate those composites was developed by a solvent treatment technique and some characterisations concerning the functionality of the surface structure were made in vitro and in vivo. Scanning electron microscope observations revealed that the pore size and interconnective porous architecture of the surface layer of the fibre-reinforced composite (FRC) could be optimal for bone ingrowth. Microhardness measurements showed that the solvent treatment did not have an effect on the mechanical properties of the load-bearing core. A push-out test, using dental stone as a bone model material, revealed that short glass fibre-reinforced porous surface layer is strong enough to carry load. Unreacted monomers can cause the chemical necrosis of the tissue, but the levels of leachable resisidual monomers were considerably lower than those found in chemically cured fibre-reinforced dentures and in modified acrylic bone cements. Animal experiments proved that surface porous FRC implant can enhance fixation between bone and FRC. New bone ingrowth into the pores was detected and strong interlocking between bone and the implant was achieved.

Märkäosan lisäaineet ja kuituflokit konesihdin ympäristössä

Painelajittelu on yksi yleisimmistä yksikköprosesseista paperin ja sellun valmistuksessa. Suurelta osin lajittimet toimivat niille asetettujen vaatimusten mukaisesti, mutta joissakin tapauksissa lajittimissa saattaa esiintyä ei-toivottavaa kuitujen kasautumista sekä kehräymän muodostusta. Niiden seurauksena lajittimien kapasiteetti alenee ja lajittelutulos heikkenee. Tämän työn tarkoituksena on uutta kuvantamistekniikkaa hyödyntäen selvittää miten kehräymät ja kuitukasaumat syntyvät painelajittimen sihtipinnalla ja miten retentioaineen syöttö sihdin ympäristössä vaikuttaa niiden syntyyn. Työn kirjallisuusosassa tarkastellaan painelajittimen toimintaa, rakennetta sekä lyhyen kierron konesihdin erityispiirteitä. Lisäksi tarkastellaan retentiokemikaalien käyttäytymistä leikkausvoimien alaisuudessa ja kuitukehräymien syntyä painelajittimissa. Kokeellisessa osassa on raportoitu kuvantamisjärjestelmällä saatuja tuloksia sekä esitetään havaintoja kehräymien ja kuitukasaumien synnystä ja niiden vaikutuksista painelajittimen toimintaan. Kuvausten perusteella voidaan sanoa, että kehräymän syntyminen sihdissä vaatii aina jonkinlaisen kuitukasauman olemassaoloa. Tällaista alkukasaumaa tarvitaan, jotta kuidut voivat ankkuroitua siihen kiinni ja johon kiinnittyneenä kuidut alkavat pyöriä virtauksessa muodostaen kehräymää. Kuitukasauman muodostuminen painelajittimessa johtuu pääosin sihdissä olevasta epäjatkuvuuskohdasta, massassa olevista epäpuhtauksista ja kuituflokeista jotka jäävät kiinni sihtipinnan aukkoihin tai lajittimen kapasiteetin ylittymisestä. Kehräymän syntyä kasauman jäljessä voidaan pitää enemmän sääntönä kuin poikkeuksena, mutta kehräytyminen on vähäisempää reikäsihdillä kuin rakosihdillä. Silloituspolymeerillä flokattu massa ei muodosta herkemmin kuitukasaumia sihtipintaan verrattuna flokkaamattomaan massaan. Lajiteltavan massan sakeuden nosto vähentää kuitukasaumien ja kehräymien syntyä. Kuitukasaumien ja kehräymien välttämiseksi on tärkeää, että sihtiä ei ajeta suunniteltua mitoitusaluetta suuremmilla tuotannoilla tai virtauksilla.

The Impact of Aspen and Alder on the Quality of NHBK

The purpose of this work was to study the effect of aspen and alder on birch cooking and the quality of the pulp produced. Three different birch kraft pulps were studied. As a reference, pure aspen and alder were included. The laboratory trials were done at the UPM Research Centre in Lappeenranta, Finland. The materials used were birch, aspen and alder mill chips that were collected around the area of South-Carelia in Finland. The chips used in the study were pulped using a standard kraft process. The pulps including birch fibres were ECF-bleached at laboratory scale to a target brightness of 85 %. The bleached pulps were beaten at low consistency by a laboratory Voith Sulzer refiner and tested for optical and physical properties. The theoretical part is a study of hardwoods that takes into accounts the differences between birch, aspen and alder. Major sub-areas were fibre and paper-technical properties as well as chemical composition and their influence on the different properties. The pulp properties of birch, aspen and alder found in previous studies were reported. Russian hardwood forest resources were also investigated. The fundamentals of kraft pulping and bleaching were studied at the end of theoretical part. The major effect of replacing birch with aspen and alder was the deterioration (lowering) of tensile and tear strengths. In other words, addition of aspen and alder to a birch furnish reduced strength properties. The reinforcement ability of the tested pulps was the following: 100 % birch > 80 % birch, 20 % aspen > 70 % birch, 20 % aspen, 10 % alder. The second thing noted was that blending of birch together with aspen and alder give better smoothness, optical properties and also formation. It can be concluded, that replacement of birch with alder during cooking by more than 10 % can negatively affect on the paper-technical properties of birch pulp. Mixing pure birch and aspen pulps would be more beneficial when producing printing paper made from chemical pulp.

Utilization of retention chemicals in non-wood containing furnishes

The usage of the non-wood pulps in furnishes for various paper grades is the real alternative for substitution of wood fibres in the papermaking. This is especially important now, when the prices for wood are increasing and forest resources are depleting in many regions of our planet. However, there are several problems associated with utilization of such pulps. In terms of the papermaking process one of the main problems is the poor dewatering of the non-wood pulps. This problem can be partially solved by means of retention aids. In the literature part were described technological features of the non-wood pulps as the raw materials for paper production. Moreover, overviews of the retention chemicals and methods for retention measurement were done; special attention was paid to the mechanisms of retention and drainage. Finally, factors affecting on the drainage and retention of non-wood pulps were considered holistically. Particular emphasis was put on the possibility of enzyme treatment for drainage improvement. It was stated that retention aids can significantly improve dewatering of non-wood pulps. In the experimental part the goal was to investigate influence of various microparticle retention aids on the drainage, retention and formation of furnish containing wheat straw pulp, obtained by novel pulping process (Formico™Fib). The parallel test were performed with reference furnish containing only wood pulps. It was found that Bentonite-CPAM retention aid can significantly improve drainage and retention; however formation seems be suffer from such additives. It was stated that performance of the Silica-Starch retention aid significantly depends on the starch dosing sequence and wet-end conditions; this system have shown better formation than other tested retention aids. Silica-CPAM retention aid have provided comparable results in retention and drainage with Bentonite-CPAM, while Silica-starch did not improve dewatering and yielded in lowest filler retention among other aids. Ultimately, optimal dosages for the tested retention chemicals have been suggested.

The Effects of Some Furnish and Paper Structure Related Factors on Wet Web Tensile and Relaxation Characteristics

The objective of this thesis was to identify the effects of different factors on the tension and tension relaxation of wet paper web after high-speed straining. The study was motivated by the plausible connection between wet web mechanical properties and wet web runnability on paper machines shown by previous studies. The mechanical properties of wet paper were examined using a fast tensile test rig with a strain rate of 1000%/s. Most of the tests were carried out with laboratory handsheets, but samples from a pilot paper machine were also used. The tension relaxation of paper was evaluated as the tension remaining after 0.475 s of relaxation (residual tension). The tensile and relaxation properties of wet webs were found to be strongly dependent on the quality and amount of fines. With low fines content, the tensile strength and residual tension of wet paper was mainly determined by the mechanical interactions between fibres at their contact points. As the fines strengthen the mechanical interaction in the network, the fibre properties also become important. Fibre deformations caused by the mechanical treatment of pulp were shown to reduce the mechanical properties of both dry and wet paper. However, the effect was significantly higher for wet paper. An increase of filler content from 10% to 25% greatly reduced the tensile strength of dry paper, but did not significantly impair wet web tensile strength or residual tension. Increased filler content in wet web was shown to increase the dryness of the wet web after the press section, which partly compensates for the reduction of fibrous material in the web. It is also presumable that fillers increase entanglement friction between fibres, which is beneficial for wet web strength. Different contaminants present in white water during sheet formation resulted in lowered surface tension and increased dryness after wet pressing. The addition of different contaminants reduced the tensile strength of the dry paper. The reduction of dry paper tensile strength could not be explained by the reduced surface tension, but rather on the tendency of different contaminants to interfere with the inter-fibre bonding. Additionally, wet web strength was not affected by the changes in the surface tension of white water or possible changes in the hydrophilicity of fibres caused by the addition of different contaminants. The spraying of different polymers on wet paper before wet pressing had a significant effect on both dry and wet web tensile strength, whereas wet web elastic modulus and residual tension were basically not affected. We suggest that the increase of dry and wet paper strength could be affected by the molecular level interactions between these chemicals and fibres. The most significant increases in dry and wet paper strength were achieved with a dual application of anionic and cationic polymers. Furthermore, selectively adding papermaking chemicals to different fibre fractions (as opposed to adding chemicals to the whole pulp) improved the wet web mechanical properties and the drainage of the pulp suspension.

Carbohydrate intake in children - associations with dietary intakes, growth, serum lipids,and dental health. The STRIP Project

This study is part of the STRIP study, which is a long-term, randomized controlled trial, designed to decrease the exposure of children in the intervention group (n=540) to known risk factors of atherosclerosis. The main focus of the intervention was the quality of dietary fat. The control group (n=522) did not receive any individualized counselling. Food consumption was evaluated with food records, and blood samples were drawn and growth was measured regularly for all participating children from 13 months to 9 years. A subsample of 66 children participated in a dental health survey. The number of studies on children’s carbohydrate intake, especially fibre intake, is insufficient. The current international recommendations for fibre intake in children are based on average assumptions and data extrapolated from intakes in adults and intake recommendations for adults. Finnish nutrition recommendations lack strict recommendations for dietary fibre in children. Due to fibre’s high bulk volume, excessive dietary fibre is considered to decrease energy density and hence it may have an adverse effect on growth. If fats are reduced from the diet, the low-fat diet may become high in sucrose. Therefore, especially in the STRIP study, it is important to determine the use of fibre and sucrose in children and possible associations with growth and nutrition as well as dental health. The results of the present study indicate that a high fibre intake does not displace energy or disturb growth in children and that children with high fibre intake have better quality of diet than those with low fibre intake. Additionally, dietary fibre intake associated inversely with serum cholesterol concentration. Other carbohydrates also affected serum lipid levels as well, since total carbohydrates, sucrose, and fructose increased serum triglyceride concentration. Total carbohydrate intake reduced HDL cholesterol concentration only in children with apoE3 or apoE4 phenotype. Over the period from the 1970s to the 1990s the dental health of children in Finland has substantially improved despite an increase in sucrose intake. The improvement was thought to be due to improved dental hygiene and the use of fluorine. However, during the past twenty years improvement in dental health has stopped. The present study showed that high long-term sugar intake increases risk of caries in children. High intake of sugar had also negative effects on the diet of children, because it worsens dietary quality by displacing essential nutrients. Furthermore, the quality of dietary fat was worse in children with high sucrose intake. In this study the children’s high sucrose intake was not associated with overweight, but interestingly, it associated inversely with growth.

Komposiittien käyttö tämän päivän koneenrakennuksessa

Komposiitit ovat yhdistelmämateriaaleja, jotka koostuvat kahdesta tai useammasta eri materiaalista. Komposiitit ovat kiinnostavia tämän päivän koneenrakennukselle niiden korkean vahvuuden ja jäykkyyden suhteesta niiden kevyeeseen painoon nähden. Kuitulujitteisten komposiittien ja laminaattien valmistukseen on monia eri menetelmiä ja ne eroavat toisistaan lähinnä hartsin levittämistapojen sekä kuitujen asettelutapojen perusteella. Komposiittien työstäminen on vaikeaa, mikä johtuu niiden epähomogeenisesta ja anistrooppisesta laadusta ja komposiittien sisältävien lujitteiden korkeasta abrasiivisesta vaikutuksesta. Tavanomaisia työstömenetelmiä, kuten sorvausta, porausta ja jyrsimistä käytetään komposiittien työstämiseen. Kuitujen suuntaus komposiiteissa vaikuttaa paljon niiden työstämiseen. Ultraäänisen tärinän käyttäminen kuitulujitteisia komposiitteja sorvattaessa parantaa työstetyn kappaleen pinnanlaatua. Komposiittimateriaalien kiinnittäminen metalleihin eroaa selvästi muiden materiaalien kiinnittämisestä. Komposiittien yhdistämisen yhteydessä on otettava huomioon monia eri asioita, kiinnitysreikien valmistuksesta käytettäviin kiinnikkeisiin. Komposiittien kierrätys ja hävittäminen on tärkeä osa niiden elinkaarta, eikä niiden kierrätykseen ole tällä hetkellä hyviä ja kustannustehokkaita kierrätysmenetelmiä. Tällä hetkellä kierrättäminen tuleekin kalliimmaksi, kuin käytettyjen komposiittien vieminen kaatopaikalle.

Regioselective modification of galactose-containing polysaccharides in aqueous media

Biorefining is defined as sustainable conversion of biomass into marketable products and energy. Forests cover almost one third of earth’s land area, and account for approximately 40% of the total annual biomass production. In forest biorefining, the wood components are, in addition to the traditional paper and board products, converted into chemicals and biofuels. The major components in wood are cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin. The main hemicellulose in softwoods, which are of interest especially for the Nordic forest industry, is O-acetyl galactoglucomannan (GGM). GGM can be isolated in industrial scale from the waste waters of the mechanical pulping process, but is not yet today industrially utilized. In order to attain desired properties of GGM for specific end-uses, chemical and enzymatic modifications can be performed. Regioselective modifications of GGM, and other galactose-containing polysaccharides were done by oxidations, and by combining oxidations with subsequent derivatizations of the formed carbonyl or carboxyl groups. Two different pathways were investigated: activation of the C-6 positions in different sugar units by TEMPO-mediated oxidation, and activation of C-6 position in only galactose-units by oxidation catalyzed by the enzyme galactose oxidase. The activated sites were further selectively derivatized; TEMPO-oxidized GGM by a carbodiimide-mediated reaction forming amides, and GO-oxidized GGM by indium-mediated allylation introducing double or triple bonds to the molecule. In order to better understand the reaction, and to develop a MALDI-TOF-MS method for characterization of regioselectively allylated GGM, α-D-galactopyranoside and raffinose were used as model compounds. All reactions were done in aqueous media. To investigate the applicability of the modified polysaccharides for, e.g., cellulose surface functionalization, their sorption onto pulp fibres was studied. Carboxylation affects the sorption tendency significantly; a higher degree of oxidation leads to lower sorption. By controlling the degree of oxidation of the polysaccharides and the ionic strength of the sorption media, high degrees of sorption of carboxylated polysaccharides onto cellulose could, however, be obtained. Anionic polysaccharides were used as templates during laccase-catalyzed polymerization of aniline, offering a green, chemo-enzymatic route for synthesis of conducting polyaniline (PANI) composite materials. Different polysaccharide templates, such as, native GGM, TEMPO-oxidized GGM, naturally anionic κ-carrageenan, and nanofibrillated cellulose produced by TEMPO-oxidation, were assessed. The conductivity of the synthesized polysaccharide/PANI biocomposites varies depending on the polysaccharide template; κ-CGN, the anionic polysaccharide with the lowest pKa value, produces the polysaccharide/PANI biocomposites with the highest conductivity. The presented derivatization, sorption, and polymerization procedures open new application windows for polysaccharides, such as spruce GGM. The modified polysaccharides and the conducting biocomposites produced provide potential applications in biosensors, electronic devices, and tissue engineering.

Topochemistry of physical and chemical pretreatments of biomass as investigated by FE-SEM, XPS and ToF-SIMS

Surface chemistry is of great importance in plant biomass engineering and applications. The surface chemical composition of biomass which includes lignin, carbohydrates and extractives influences its interactions with chemical agents, such as pulp processing/papermaking chemicals, or enzymes for different purposes. In this thesis, the changes in the surface chemical composition of lignocellulosic biomass after physical modification for the improvement of resulting paper properties and chemical treatment for the enhancement of enzymatic hydrolysis were investigated. Low consistency (LC) refining was used as physical treatment of bleached softwood and hardwood pulp samples, and the surface chemistry of refined samples was investigated. The refined pulp was analysed as whole pulp while the fines-free fibre samples were characterized separately. The fines produced in LCrefining contributed to an enlarged surface specific area as well as the change of surface coverage by lignin and extractives, as investigated by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The surface coverage by lignin of the whole pulp decreased after refining while the surface coverage by extractives increased both for pine and eucalyptus. In the case of pine, the removal of fines resulted in reduction of the surface coverage by extractives, while the surface coverage by lignin increased on fibre sample (without fines). In the case of eucalyptus, the surface coverage by lignin of fibre samples decreased after the removal of fines. In addition, the surface distribution of carbohydrates, lignin and extractives of pine and eucalyptus samples was determined by Time-of-Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (ToF-SIMS). LC-refining increased the amounts of pentose, hexose and extractives on the surface of pine samples. ToF-SIMS also gave clear evidence about xylan deposition and reduction of surface lignin distribution on the fibre of eucalyptus. However, the changes in the surface chemical composition during the physical treatment has led to an increase in the adsorption of fluorescent whitening agents (FWAs) on fibres due to a combination of electro-static forces, specific surface area of fibres and hydrophobic interactions. Various physicochemical pretreatments were conducted on wood and non-wood biomass for enhancing enzymatic hydrolysis of polysaccharides, and the surface chemistry of the pretreated and enzymatically hydrolysed samples was investigated by field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), XPS and ToF-SIMS. A hydrotrope was used as a relatively novel pretreatment technology both in the case of wood and non-wood biomass. For comparison, ionic liquid and hydrothermal pretreatments were applied on softwood and hardwood as well. Thus, XPS analysis showed that the surface lignin was more efficiently removed by hydrotropic pretreatment compared to ionic liquid or hydrothermal pretreatments. SEM analysis also found that already at room temperature the ionic liquid pretreatments were more effective in swelling the fibres compared with hydrotropic pretreatment at elevated temperatures. The enzymatic hydrolysis yield of hardwood was enhanced due to the decrease in surface coverage of lignin, which was induced by hydrotropic treatment. However, hydrotropic pretreatment was not appropriate for softwood because of the predominance of guaiacyl lignin structure in this material. In addition, the reduction of surface lignin and xylan during pretreatment and subsequent increase in cellulose hydrolysis by enzyme could be observed from ToF-SIMS results. The characterisation of the non-wood biomass (e.g. sugarcane bagasse and common reed) treated by hydrotropic method, alkaline and alkaline hydrogen peroxide pretreatments were carried out by XPS and ToF-SIMS. According to the results, the action for the removal of the surface lignin of non-wood biomass by hydrotropic pretreatment was more significant compared to alkaline and alkaline hydrogen peroxide pretreatments, although a higher total amount of lignin could be removed by alkaline and alkaline hydrogen peroxide pretreatment. Furthermore, xylan could be remarkably more efficiently removed by hydrotropic method. Therefore, the glucan yield achieved from hydrotropic treated sample was higher than that from samples treated with alkaline or alkaline hydrogen peroxide. Through the use of ToF-SIMS, the distribution and localization of lignin and carbohydrates on the surface of ignocelluloses during pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis could be detected, and xylan degradation during enzymatic hydrolysis could also be assessed. Thus, based on the results from XPS and ToF-SIMS, the mechanism of the hydrotropic pretreatment in improving the accessibility of enzymes to fibre and further ameliorating of the enzymatic saccharification could be better elucidated.

Pressforming of a tray from a pulp sheet

The aim of this thesis work was to verify the possibility to produce tray packages directly from pulp sheets using press forming techniques. The different existing raw materials of pulp, various sources of molded pulp and different methods of production of molded pulp were studied. Nine different raw materials which were used for experimental work were provided by Stora Enso mills, and Stora Enso Research Centre, Imatra, Finland. The laboratory tests were carried out using LUT Adjustable packaging line at Lappeenranta University of Technology. The results prove that long virgin fibres of pine pulp seems to have better formability with high moisture content compared to others. No significant improvements were noticed with conditioned samples, never the less far studies has to be done to find optimal conditions for production. The results indicated the possibility for making pressformed tray from two different pulp qualities (Sunila pulp and Enopine). The method could prove to be beneficiary as the production line could be shortened and investment in board machines could be avoided if the trays were pressed directly from pulp sheets. Also the labour costs would be reduced. However, there is much work to be done before the quality of a tray produced out of a pulp sheet is comparable to a tray produced out of tray board.

Pohjapaperin kustannusrakenteen optimointi

Kilpailulliset tekijät ovat johtaneet paperin valmistajat miettimään keinoja valmistuskustannusten leikkaamiseksi. Yksi keino on optimoida raaka-aineiden käyttöä, jota on tehty tässä diplomityössä. Työn tarkoitus on selvittää koeajoin mahdollisuudet kalliimpien raaka-aineiden korvaamiseen edullisemmilla, säilyttäen kuitenkin pohjapaperin laadulliset ominaisuudet. Työ on toteutettu UPM Kymmene Oyj:n Jokilaakson tehtailla, Jämsänkosken paperitehtaan Tarrapaperit-osastolla. Työssä on käytetty apuna tietokoneohjelmia mallintamaan ja simuloimaan paperissa ja paperin kustannusrakenteessa tapahtuvia muutoksia, mutta merkittävimmässä asemassa ovat olleet koeajot ja erilaisten näytteiden käsittely. Raaka-aineina käytettävien massojen osuuksien optimoinnilla on saatu aikaiseksi merkittäviä kustannussäästöjä, mutta työn yhteydessä on löydetty myös keinoja säästöjen saavuttamiseksi energiankulutusta järkevöittämällä. Luotu malli auttaa jatkossa kustannusrakenteen seurannassa. Mäntysellun osuuden laskulla ja täyteaineen osuuden nostolla saavutetaan merkittävimmät kustannussäästöt, kemihierteellä vaikutus kustannuksiin on vähäisempi. Sähköenergiaa vievä kuitujen jauhatus on järjestetty paperikone 3:lla uudella tavalla, jolla on paitsi saavutettu säästöä energiassa, parannettu myös paperin lujuutta.

Functional cellulose microspheres for pharmaceutical applications

Dissolving cellulose is the first main step in preparing novel cellulosicmaterials. Since cellulosic fibres cannot be easily dissolved in water-based solvents, fibres were pretreated with ethanol-acid solution prior to the dissolution. Solubility and changes on the surface of the fibres were studied with microscopy and capillary viscometry. After the treatment, the cellulose fibres were soluble in alkaline urea-water solvent. The nature of this viscous solution was studied rheologically. Cellulose microspheres were prepared by extruding the alkaline cellulose solution through the needle into an acidic medium. By altering the temperature and acidity of the mediumit was possible to adjust the specific surface area and pore sizes of themicrospheres. A typical skin-core structure was found in all samples. Microspheres were oxidised in order to introduce anionic carboxylic acid groups (AGs). Anionic microspheres are more hydrophilic; their water-uptake increased 25 times after oxidation and they could swell almost to their original state (88%) after drying and shrinking. Swelling was studied in simulated physiological environments, corresponding to stomach acid and intestines (pH 1.2-7.4). Oxidised microspheres were used as a drug carriers. They demonstrated a highmass uniformity, which would enable their use for personalised dosing among different patients, including children. The drug was solidified in microspheres in amorphous form. This enhanced solubility and could be used for more challenging drugs with poor solubility. The pores of themicrospheres also remained open after the drug was loaded and they were dried. Regardless of the swelling, the drug was released at a constant rate in all environments.