The history of Lapland : containing a geographical description, and a natural history of that country; with an account of the inhabitants, their original, religion, customs, habits, marriages, conjurations, employments, &c. Written by John Scheffer, ... Translated from the last edition in Latin, and illustrated with many curious copper-cutts. To which are added, the travels of the King of Sweden's mathematicians into Lapland: the history of Livonia, and the wars there: also a journey into Lapland, Finland, &c. Written by Dr. Olof Rudbeck in the year 1701

Added engraved title page: The history of Lapland.

Diffusion of Smart Meters in Central East Europe

The present study deals with innovation diffusion as the central component of innovation process and takes smart meters as a concrete example from the electric power industry. Smart meters are seen as key enablers of the industry-wide shift towards smart grids and are recognized by the European Union as means of reaching its environmental and energy goals. However, the spread of smart meters through the market, especially in Central East Europe (CEE), is not corresponding to the expectations and identified benefits. The current work synthesizes available data for the under-researched geographical region of CEE and clarifies the process of smart meter diffusion and drivers behind it. In addition to innovation theories the methods applied are rate of adoption and thematic analysis. The results prove the large gap between optimal and actual diffusion as well as the lagging position of CEE in comparison to the EU’s market leaders. The smart metering market is driven from bottom-up and the majority of CEE countries have already carried out or started the initial activities. Therefore, in coming years more intensive smart meters deployment will be seen.

Modeling of electrolyte sorption – from phase equilibria to dynamic separation systems

In this thesis, general approach is devised to model electrolyte sorption from aqueous solutions on solid materials. Electrolyte sorption is often considered as unwanted phenomenon in ion exchange and its potential as an independent separation method has not been fully explored. The solid sorbents studied here are porous and non-porous organic or inorganic materials with or without specific functional groups attached on the solid matrix. Accordingly, the sorption mechanisms include physical adsorption, chemisorption on the functional groups and partition restricted by electrostatic or steric factors. The model is tested in four Cases Studies dealing with chelating adsorption of transition metal mixtures, physical adsorption of metal and metalloid complexes from chloride solutions, size exclusion of electrolytes in nano-porous materials and electrolyte exclusion of electrolyte/non-electrolyte mixtures. The model parameters are estimated using experimental data from equilibrium and batch kinetic measurements, and they are used to simulate actual single-column fixed-bed separations. Phase equilibrium between the solution and solid phases is described using thermodynamic Gibbs-Donnan model and various adsorption models depending on the properties of the sorbent. The 3-dimensional thermodynamic approach is used for volume sorption in gel-type ion exchangers and in nano-porous adsorbents, and satisfactory correlation is obtained provided that both mixing and exclusion effects are adequately taken into account. 2-Dimensional surface adsorption models are successfully applied to physical adsorption of complex species and to chelating adsorption of transition metal salts. In the latter case, comparison is also made with complex formation models. Results of the mass transport studies show that uptake rates even in a competitive high-affinity system can be described by constant diffusion coefficients, when the adsorbent structure and the phase equilibrium conditions are adequately included in the model. Furthermore, a simplified solution based on the linear driving force approximation and the shrinking-core model is developed for very non-linear adsorption systems. In each Case Study, the actual separation is carried out batch-wise in fixed-beds and the experimental data are simulated/correlated using the parameters derived from equilibrium and kinetic data. Good agreement between the calculated and experimental break-through curves is usually obtained indicating that the proposed approach is useful in systems, which at first sight are very different. For example, the important improvement in copper separation from concentrated zinc sulfate solution at elevated temperatures can be correctly predicted by the model. In some cases, however, re-adjustment of model parameters is needed due to e.g. high solution viscosity.

Diffusion Tensor Imaging as a Diagnostic and Research Tool: A Study on Preterm Infants

Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) is an advanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technique. DTI is based on free thermal motion (diffusion) of water molecules. The properties of diffusion can be represented using parameters such as fractional anisotropy, mean diffusivity, axial diffusivity, and radial diffusivity, which are calculated from DTI data. These parameters can be used to study the microstructure in fibrous structure such as brain white matter. The aim of this study was to investigate the reproducibility of region-of-interest (ROI) analysis and determine associations between white matter integrity and antenatal and early postnatal growth at term age using DTI. Antenatal growth was studied using both the ROI and tract-based spatial statistics (TBSS) method and postnatal growth using only the TBSS method. The infants included to this study were born below 32 gestational weeks or birth weight less than 1,501 g and imaged with a 1.5 T MRI system at term age. Total number of 132 infants met the inclusion criteria between June 2004 and December 2006. Due to exclusion criteria, a total of 76 preterm infants (ROI) and 36 preterm infants (TBSS) were accepted to this study. The ROI analysis was quite reproducible at term age. Reproducibility varied between white matter structures and diffusion parameters. Normal antenatal growth was positively associated with white matter maturation at term age. The ROI analysis showed associations only in the corpus callosum. Whereas, TBSS revealed associations in several brain white matter areas. Infants with normal antenatal growth showed more mature white matter compared to small for gestational age infants. The gestational age at birth had no significant association with white matter maturation at term age. It was observed that good early postnatal growth associated negatively with white matter maturation at term age. Growth-restricted infants seemed to have delayed brain maturation that was not fully compensated at term, despite catchup growth.

Selective leaching of multimetal tailings

Depletion of high grade mineral resources, tightening of environmental regulations and the environmental impact of acid mine drainage caused by sulfidic minerals continuously increase the interest in processing tailings and other mine waste. Treating waste requires additional capital and operational input, but the decrease in size and need of tailings ponds and permits decrease the overall costs. Treatment and utilization of the tailings could also bring added revenue by the recovery of valuables. Leaching of metal sulfides is very demanding and time consuming and hence process conditions need to be carefully optimized. The leaching of sulfides is affected by for example the choice of leaching agent, its concentration and temperature, pH, the redox potential, pressure, pulp density and particle size distribution. With reference to the mine case study the leaching of nickel and copper sulfides, especially the primary minerals pentlandite and chalcopyrite were investigated. Leaching behavior and recoveries for nickel, copper and iron were found out by sulfuric and citric acid leaching experiments using tailings samples of high and low sulfur content. Moderate recoveries were obtained and citric acid seemed more attractive. Increase in temperature and decrease in pulp density had positive effect on the recovery and pH was also proven to have a significant effect on the recovery of valuables. The rate determining step was determined through kinetic modeling in case of all valuables separately. Leaching was controlled by diffusion. The investigated multimetal tailing showed moderate potential in recovering of metal valuables from low grade tailing deposits. The process conditions should however be further optimized.

Replacing Copper with New Carbon Nanomaterials in Electrical Machine Windings

Electrical machines have significant improvement potential. Nevertheless, the field is characterized by incremental innovations. Admittedly, steady improvement has been achieved, but no breakthrough development. Radical development in the field would require the introduction of new elements, such that may change the whole electrical machine industry system. Recent technological advancements in nanomaterials have opened up new horizons for the macroscopic application of carbon nanotube (CNT) fibres. With values of 100 MS/m measured on individual CNTs, CNT fibre materials hold promise for conductivities far beyond those of metals. Highly conductive, lightweight and strong CNT yarn is finally within reach; it could replace copper as a potentially better winding material. Although not yet providing low resistivity, the newest CNT yarn offers attractive perspectives for accelerated efficiency improvement of electrical machines. In this article, the potential for using new CNT materials to replace copper in machine windings is introduced. It does so, firstly, by describing the environment for a change that could revolutionize the industry and, secondly, by presenting the breakthrough results of a prototype construction. In the test motor, which is to our knowledge the first in its kind, the presently most electrically conductive carbon nanotube yarn replaces usual copper in the windings.

The northern provinces of Sweden and Norway with part I, of Russia / published under the superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.

[N. 1:4400000].

Prospects of Bitcoin diffusion

Currency is something people deal with every day in their lives. The contemporary society is very much revolving around currencies. Even though technological development has been rapid, the principle of currency has stayed relatively unchanged for a long time. Bitcoin is a digital currency that introduced an alternative to other digital currencies, and to the traditional physical currencies. Bitcoin is peer-to-peer, open source, and it erases the need of a third party in transactions. Bitcoin has since inception gained certain fame, but it has not established itself as a common currency in the world. The purpose of this study was to analyse what kind of potential does Bitcoin have to become a widely accepted currency in day-to-day transactions. The main research question was divided into three sub questions: • What kind of a process is the diffusion of new innovations? • What kinds of factors speak for the wider adoption of Bitcoin? • What kinds of factors speak against the wider adoption of Bitcoin? The purpose of the study was approached by having diffusion of innovations as the theoretical framework. The four elements in diffusion of innovations are, innovation, communication, time, and social system. The theoretical framework is applied to Bitcoin, and the research questions answered by analysing Bitcoin’s potential diffusion prospects. The body of research data consisted of media texts and statistics. In this study, content analysis was the research method. The main findings of the study are that Bitcoin has clear strengths, but it faces a large amount of uncertainty. Bitcoin’s strong areas are the transactions. They are fast, easy, and cheap. From the innovation diffusion perspective Bitcoin is still relatively unknown, and the general public’s attitudes towards it are sceptical. The research findings purport that Bitcoin has potential demand especially when the financial system of a region is dysfunctional, or when there is a financial crisis. Bitcoin is not very trusted, and the majority of people do not see a reason to start using Bitcoin in the future. A large number of people associate it with illegal activities. In general people are largely unaware of what Bitcoin is or what are the strengths and weaknesses. Bitcoin is an innovative alternative currency. However, unless people see a major need for Bitcoin due to a financial crisis, or dysfunctionality in the financial system, Bitcoin will not become much more widespread as it is today. Bitcoin’s underlying technology can be harnessed to multiple uses. Developments in that field in the future are something that future researchers could look into.

Two-dimensional drift-diffusion simulation of organic solar cells

The aim of this master's thesis is to develop a two-dimensional drift-di usion model, which describes charge transport in organic solar cells. The main bene t of a two-dimensional model compared to a one-dimensional one is the inclusion of the nanoscale morphology of the active layer of a bulk heterojunction solar cell. The developed model was used to study recombination dynamics at the donor-acceptor interface. In some cases, it was possible to determine e ective parameters, which reproduce the results of the two-dimensional model in the one-dimensional case. A summary of the theory of charge transport in semiconductors was presented and discussed in the context of organic materials. Additionally, the normalization and discretization procedures required to nd a numerical solution to the charge transport problem were outlined. The charge transport problem was solved by implementing an iterative scheme called successive over-relaxation. The obtained solution is given as position-dependent electric potential, free charge carrier concentrations and current densities in the active layer. An interfacial layer, separating the pure phases, was introduced in order to describe charge dynamics occurring at the interface between the donor and acceptor. For simplicity, an e ective generation of free charge carriers in the interfacial layer was implemented. The pure phases simply act as transport layers for the photogenerated charges. Langevin recombination was assumed in the two-dimensional model and an analysis of the apparent recombination rate in the one-dimensional case is presented. The recombination rate in a two-dimensional model is seen to e ectively look like reduced Langevin recombination at open circuit. Replicating the J-U curves obtained in the two-dimensional model is, however, not possible by introducing a constant reduction factor in the Langevin recombination rate. The impact of an acceptor domain in the pure donor phase was investigated. Two cases were considered, one where the acceptor domain is isolated and another where it is connected to the bulk of the acceptor. A comparison to the case where no isolated domains exist was done in order to quantify the observed reduction in the photocurrent. The results show that all charges generated at the isolated domain are lost to recombination, but the domain does not have a major impact on charge transport. Trap-assisted recombination at interfacial trap states was investigated, as well as the surface dipole caused by the trapped charges. A theoretical expression for the ideality factor n_id as a function of generation was derived and shown to agree with simulation data. When the theoretical expression was fitted to simulation data, no interface dipole was observed.