Preferential infection of immature dendritic cells and B cells by mouse mammary tumor virus.

Until now it was thought that the retrovirus mouse mammary tumor virus preferentially infects B cells, which thereafter proliferate and differentiate due to superantigen-mediated T cell help. We describe in this study that dendritic cells are infectable at levels comparable to B cells in the first days after virus injection. Moreover, IgM knockout mice have chronically deleted superantigen-reactive T cells after MMTV injection, indicating that superantigen presentation by dendritic cells is sufficient for T cell deletion. In both subsets initially only few cells were infected, but there was an exponential increase in numbers of infected B cells due to superantigen-mediated T cell help, explaining that at the peak of the response infection is almost exclusively found in B cells. The level of infection in vivo was below 1 in 1000 dendritic cells or B cells. Infection levels in freshly isolated dendritic cells from spleen, Langerhans cells from skin, or bone marrow-derived dendritic cells were compared in an in vitro infection assay. Immature dendritic cells such as Langerhans cells or bone marrow-derived dendritic cells were infected 10- to 30-fold more efficiently than mature splenic dendritic cells. Bone marrow-derived dendritic cells carrying an endogenous mouse mammary tumor virus superantigen were highly efficient at inducing a superantigen response in vivo. These results highlight the importance of professional APC and efficient T cell priming for the establishment of a persistent infection by mouse mammary tumor virus.

Degeneracy of antigen recognition as the molecular basis for the high frequency of naive A2/Melan-a peptide multimer(+) CD8(+) T cells in humans.

In contrast with the low frequency of most single epitope reactive T cells in the preimmune repertoire, up to 1 of 1,000 naive CD8(+) T cells from A2(+) individuals specifically bind fluorescent A2/peptide multimers incorporating the A27L analogue of the immunodominant 26-35 peptide from the melanocyte differentiation and melanoma associated antigen Melan-A. This represents the only naive antigen-specific T cell repertoire accessible to direct analysis in humans up to date. To get insight into the molecular basis for the selection and maintenance of such an abundant repertoire, we analyzed the functional diversity of T cells composing this repertoire ex vivo at the clonal level. Surprisingly, we found a significant proportion of multimer(+) clonotypes that failed to recognize both Melan-A analogue and parental peptides in a functional assay but efficiently recognized peptides from proteins of self- or pathogen origin selected for their potential functional cross-reactivity with Melan-A. Consistent with these data, multimers incorporating some of the most frequently recognized peptides specifically stained a proportion of naive CD8(+) T cells similar to that observed with Melan-A multimers. Altogether these results indicate that the high frequency of Melan-A multimer(+) T cells can be explained by the existence of largely cross-reactive subsets of naive CD8(+) T cells displaying multiple specificities.

Tissue homing and persistence of defined antigen-specific CD8+ tumor-reactive T-cell clones in long-term melanoma survivors.

Tumor antigen-specific cytotoxic T cells (CTLs) play a major role in the adaptive immune response to cancers. This CTL response is often insufficient because of functional impairment, tumor escape mechanisms, or inhibitory tumor microenvironment. However, little is known about the fate of given tumor-specific CTL clones in cancer patients. Studies in patients with favorable outcomes may be very informative. In this longitudinal study, we tracked, quantified, and characterized functionally defined antigen-specific T-cell clones ex vivo, in peripheral blood and at tumor sites, in two long-term melanoma survivors. MAGE-A10-specific CD8+ T-cell clones with high avidity to antigenic peptide and tumor lytic capabilities persisted in peripheral blood over more than 10 years, with quantitative variations correlating with the clinical course. These clones were also found in emerging metastases, and, in one patient, circulating clonal T cells displayed a fully differentiated effector phenotype at the time of relapse. Longevity, tumor homing, differentiation phenotype, and quantitative adaptation to the disease phases suggest the contribution of the tracked tumor-reactive clones in the tumor control of these long-term metastatic survivor patients. Focusing research on patients with favorable outcomes may help to identify parameters that are crucial for an efficient antitumor response and to optimize cancer immunotherapy.

In vitro negative selection of viral superantigen-reactive thymocytes by thymic dendritic cells.

Intrathymic expression of endogenous mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV)-encoded superantigens (SAg) induces the clonal deletion of T cells bearing SAg-reactive T-cell receptor (TCR) Vbeta elements. However, the identity of the thymic antigen-presenting cells (APC) involved in the induction of SAg tolerance remains to be defined. We have analyzed the potential of dendritic cells (DC) to mediate the clonal deletion of Mtv-7-reactive TCR alphabeta P14 transgenic thymocytes in an in vitro assay. Our results show that both thymic and splenic DC induced the deletion of TCR transgenic double positive (DP) thymocytes. DC appear to be more efficient than splenic B cells as negatively selecting APC in this experimental system. Interestingly, thymic and splenic DC display a differential ability to induce CD4+ SP thymocyte proliferation. These observations suggest that thymic DC may have an important role in the induction of SAg tolerance in vivo.

Induction of CD8 T-cell responses restricted to multiple HLA class I alleles in a cancer patient by immunization with a 20-mer NY-ESO-1f (NY-ESO-1 91-110) peptide.

Immunogenicity of a long 20-mer NY-ESO-1f peptide vaccine was evaluated in a lung cancer patient TK-f01, immunized with the peptide with Picibanil OK-432 and Montanide ISA-51. We showed that internalization of the peptide was necessary to present CD8 T-cell epitopes on APC, contrasting with the direct presentation of the short epitope. CD8 T-cell responses restricted to all five HLA class I alleles were induced in the patient after the peptide vaccination. Clonal analysis showed that B*35:01 and B*52:01-restricted CD8 T-cell responses were the two dominant responses. The minimal epitopes recognized by A*24:02, B*35:01, B*52:01 and C*12:02-restricted CD8 T-cell clones were defined and peptide/HLA tetramers were produced. NY-ESO-1 91-101 on A*24:02, NY-ESO-1 92-102 on B*35:01, NY-ESO-1 96-104 on B*52:01 and NY-ESO-1 96-104 on C*12:02 were new epitopes first defined in this study. Identification of the A*24:02 epitope is highly relevant for studying the Japanese population because of its high expression frequency (60%). High affinity CD8 T-cells recognizing tumor cells naturally expressing the epitopes and matched HLA were induced at a significant level. The findings suggest the usefulness of a long 20-mer NY-ESO-1f peptide harboring multiple CD8 T-cell epitopes as an NY-ESO-1 vaccine. Characterization of CD8 T-cell responses in immunomonitoring using peptide/HLA tetramers revealed that multiple CD8 T-cell responses comprised the dominant response.

Transcriptome of a mouse kidney cortical collecting duct cell line: effects of aldosterone and vasopressin.

Aldosterone and vasopressin are responsible for the final adjustment of sodium and water reabsorption in the kidney. In principal cells of the kidney cortical collecting duct (CCD), the integral response to aldosterone and the long-term functional effects of vasopressin depend on transcription. In this study, we analyzed the transcriptome of a highly differentiated mouse clonal CCD principal cell line (mpkCCD(cl4)) and the changes in the transcriptome induced by aldosterone and vasopressin. Serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE) was performed on untreated cells and on cells treated with either aldosterone or vasopressin for 4 h. The transcriptomes in these three experimental conditions were determined by sequencing 169,721 transcript tags from the corresponding SAGE libraries. Limiting the analysis to tags that occurred twice or more in the data set, 14,654 different transcripts were identified, 3,642 of which do not match known mouse sequences. Statistical comparison (at P < 0.05 level) of the three SAGE libraries revealed 34 AITs (aldosterone-induced transcripts), 29 ARTs (aldosterone-repressed transcripts), 48 VITs (vasopressin-induced transcripts) and 11 VRTs (vasopressin-repressed transcripts). A selection of the differentially-expressed, hormone-specific transcripts (5 VITs, 2 AITs and 1 ART) has been validated in the mpkCCD(cl4) cell line either by Northern blot hybridization or reverse transcription-PCR. The hepatocyte nuclear transcription factor HNF-3-alpha (VIT39), the receptor activity modifying protein RAMP3 (VIT48), and the glucocorticoid-induced leucine zipper protein (GILZ) (AIT28) are candidate proteins playing a role in physiological responses of this cell line to vasopressin and aldosterone.

Information from single-cell bacterial biosensors: what is it good for?

Bacterial reporter cells (i.e. strains engineered to produce easily measurable signals in response to one or more chemical targets) can principally be used to quantify chemical signals and analytes, physicochemical conditions and gradients on a microscale (i.e. micrometer to submillimeter distances), when the reporter signal is determined in individual cells. This makes sense, as bacterial life essentially thrives in microheterogenic environments and single-cell reporter information can help us to understand the microphysiology of bacterial cells and its importance for macroscale processes like pollutant biodegradation, beneficial bacteria-eukaryote interactions, and infection. Recent findings, however, showed that clonal bacterial populations are essentially always physiologically, phenotypically and genotypically heterogeneous, thus emphasizing the need for sound statistical approaches for the interpretation of reporter response in individual bacterial cells. Serious attempts have been made to measure and interpret single-cell reporter gene expression and to understand variability in reporter expression among individuals in a population.

The three main stumbling blocks for anticancer T cells.

Memory and effector T cells have the potential to counteract cancer progression, but often fail to control the disease, essentially because of three main stumbling blocks. First, clonal deletion leads to relatively low numbers or low-to-intermediate T cell receptor (TCR) affinity of self/tumor-specific T cells. Second, the poor innate immune stimulation by solid tumors is responsible for inefficient priming and boosting. Third, T cells are suppressed in the tumor microenvironment by inhibitory signals from other immune cells, stroma and tumor cells, which induces T cell exhaustion, as demonstrated in metastases of melanoma patients. State-of-the-art adoptive cell transfer and active immunotherapy can partially overcome the three stumbling blocks. The reversibility of T cell exhaustion and novel molecular insights provide the basis for further improvements of clinical immunotherapy.

An Unusual Uterine Tumor With Signet Ring Cell Features.

In 2004, a 56-year-old woman was diagnosed with Stage IA follicular lymphoma in a cervical lymph node biopsy. The patient experienced total remission after local radiation therapy. In 2009, a control computed tomography scan evidenced a pelvic mass, prompting total hysterectomy. The latter harbored a 4.8-cm intramural uterine tumor corresponding to a mostly diffuse and focally nodular proliferation of medium to large cells, with extensive, periodic acid-Schiff negative, signet ring cell changes, and a pan-keratin negative, CD20+, CD10+, Bcl2+, Bcl6+ immunophenotype. Molecular genetic studies showed the same clonal IGH gene rearrangement in the lymph node and the uterus, establishing the uterine tumor as a relapse of the preceding follicular lymphoma, although no signet ring cells were evidenced at presentation. Uterine localization of lymphomas is rare, and lymphomas with signet ring cell features are uncommon. This exceptional case exemplifies a diagnostically challenging situation and expands the differential diagnosis of uterine neoplasms displaying signet ring cell morphology.

Multisystem Langerhans' cell histiocytosis (Hand-Schüller-Christian disease) in an adult: a case report and review of the literature.

Langerhans' cell histiocytosis (LCH) is a rare and enigmatic clonal disorder that affects mainly children. It is characterized by single or multiple granulomatous mass lesions composed of cells with the Langerhans' cell phenotype. Clinical presentation and behavior are heterogeneous and can range from a solitary lytic bone lesion (i.e., eosinophilic granuloma) with a favorable course to a fatal disseminated leukaemia-like form, with a wide spectrum of intermediate clinical presentations between these two extremes. Although LCH typically involves the bone, lesions can be found in almost all organs. We are reporting the case of a multisystem LCH in a 47-year-old patient who presented with a panhypopituitarism and diabetes insipidus, and who, 5 years later, developed mandibular, mastoid and femoral lesions. The final diagnosis of LCH was made on mandibular biopsy.

Genome-wide prediction of matrix attachment regions that increase gene expression in mammalian cells.

Gene transfer in eukaryotic cells and organisms suffers from epigenetic effects that result in low or unstable transgene expression and high clonal variability. Use of epigenetic regulators such as matrix attachment regions (MARs) is a promising approach to alleviate such unwanted effects. Dissection of a known MAR allowed the identification of sequence motifs that mediate elevated transgene expression. Bioinformatics analysis implied that these motifs adopt a curved DNA structure that positions nucleosomes and binds specific transcription factors. From these observations, we computed putative MARs from the human genome. Cloning of several predicted MARs indicated that they are much more potent than the previously known element, boosting the expression of recombinant proteins from cultured cells as well as mediating high and sustained expression in mice. Thus we computationally identified potent epigenetic regulators, opening new strategies toward high and stable transgene expression for research, therapeutic production or gene-based therapies.

Origin and genome evolution of polyploid green toads in Central Asia: evidence from microsatellite markers.

Polyploidization, which is expected to trigger major genomic reorganizations, occurs much less commonly in animals than in plants, possibly because of constraints imposed by sex-determination systems. We investigated the origins and consequences of allopolyploidization in Palearctic green toads (Bufo viridis subgroup) from Central Asia, with three ploidy levels and different modes of genome transmission (sexual versus clonal), to (i) establish a topology for the reticulate phylogeny in a species-rich radiation involving several closely related lineages and (ii) explore processes of genomic reorganization that may follow polyploidization. Sibship analyses based on 30 cross-amplifying microsatellite markers substantiated the maternal origins and revealed the paternal origins and relationships of subgenomes in allopolyploids. Analyses of the synteny of linkage groups identified three markers affected by translocation events, which occurred only within the paternally inherited subgenomes of allopolyploid toads and exclusively affected the linkage group that determines sex in several diploid species of the green toad radiation. Recombination rates did not differ between diploid and polyploid toad species, and were overall much reduced in males, independent of linkage group and ploidy levels. Clonally transmitted subgenomes in allotriploid toads provided support for strong genetic drift, presumably resulting from recombination arrest. The Palearctic green toad radiation seems to offer unique opportunities to investigate the consequences of polyploidization and clonal transmission on the dynamics of genomes in vertebrates.

Immunology of viral disease, how to curb persistent infection

1. 1. Summaries 1.1. Preamble and extended abstract The present thesis dissertation addresses the question of antiviral immunity from the particular standpoint of the adaptive T cell-mediated immune response. The experimental work is presented in the form of three published articles (two experimental articles and one review article, see sections 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 on pages 73, 81 and 91, respectively), describing advances both in our understanding of viral control by CD8 T lymphocytes, and in vaccine development against the Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 (HIV-1). Because the articles focus on rather specialized areas of antiviral immunity, the article sections are preceded by a general introduction (section 3) on the immune system in general, and on four viruses that were addressed in the experimental work, namely HIV-1, Cytomegalovirus (CMV), Epstein Barr Virus (EBV) and Influenzavirus (Flu). This introduction section is aimed at providing a glimpse on viral molecular biology and immunity, to help the hypothetical non-expert reader proceeding into the experimental part. For this reason, each section is presented as individual entity and can be consulted separately. The four viruses described are of peculiar relevance to immunity because they induce an array of opposite host responses. Flu causes a self limiting disease after which the virus is eradicated. CMV and EBV cause pauci-symptomatic or asymptomatic diseases after which the viruses establish lifelong latency in the host cells, but are kept in check by immunity. Eventually, HIV-1 establishes both latency - by inserting its genome into the host cell chromosome - and proceeds in destroying the immune system in a poorly controlled fashion. Hence, understanding the fundamental differences between these kinds of viral host interactions might help develop new strategies to curb progressive diseases caused by viruses such as HIV-1. Publication #1: The first article (section 4.1, page 73) represents the main frame of my laboratory work. It analyses the ability of CD8 T lymphocytes recovered from viral-infected patients to secrete interferon γ (IFN-γ) alone or in conjunction with interleukin 2 (IL-2) when exposed in vitro to their cognate viral antigens. CD8 T cells are instrumental in controlling viral infection. They can identify infected cells by detecting viral antigens presented at the surface of the infected cells, and eliminate both the cell and its infecting virus by triggering apoptosis and/or lysis of the infected cell. Recognition of these antigens triggers the cognate CD8 cells to produce cytokines, including IFN-γ and IL-2, which in turn attract and activate other pro-inflammatory cells. IFN-γ triggers both intrinsic antiviral activity of the infected cells and distant activation of pro-inflammatory cells, which are important for the eradication of infection. IL-2 is essential for clonal expansion of the antigen (Ag)-specific CD8 T cell. Hence the existence of Ag-specific CD8 cells secreting both IFN-γand IL-2 should be beneficial for controlling infection. In this first work we determined the percentage of IFN-y/IL-2 double positive and single IFN-γsecreting CD8 T cells against antigens HIV-1, CMV, EBV and Flu in three groups of subjects: (i) HIV-1 infected patients progressing to disease (progressors), (ii) HIV-1-infected subjects not progressing to disease (long-term non progressors or LTNP), and (iii) HIV negative blood donors. The results disclosed a specific IFN-y/IL-2 double positive CD8 response in all subjects able to control infection. In other words, IFN-y/IL-2 double positive CD8 cells were present in virus-specific CD8 T cells against Flu, CMV and EBV as well against HIV-1 in LTNP. In contrast, progressors only had single IFN-γsecreting CD8 T cells. Hence, the ability to develop an IFN-y/IL-2 double positive response might be critical to control infection, independently of the nature of the virus. Additional experiments helped identify the developmental stage of the missing cells (using different markers such as CD45RA and CCR7) and showed a correlation between the absence of IL-2 secreting CD8 T cells and a failure in the proliferation capacity of virus-specific CD8 T cells. Addition of exogenous IL-2 could restore clonal expansion of HIV-1 specific CD8 T cells, at least in vitro. It could further been shown, that IL-2 secreting CD8 T cells are sufficient to support proliferation even in absence of CD4 help. However, the reason for the missing IFN-y/IL-2 double positive CD8 T cell response in HIV-1 progessors has yet to be determined. Publication #2: The second article (section 4.2, page 81) explores new strategies to trigger CD8 T cell immunity against specific HIV-1 proteins believed to be processed and exposed as "infection signal" at the surface of infected cells. Such signals consist of peptide fragments (8- 13 amino acids) originating from viral proteins and presented to CD8 T cells in the frame of particular cell surface molecules of the major histocompatibility complex class I* (MHC I). To mimic "natural" viral infection, the HIV-1 polyprotein Gagpolnef was inserted and expressed in either of two attenuated viruses i.e. vaccinia virus (MVA) or poxvirus (NYVAC). Mice were infected with these recombinant viruses and specific CD8 T cell response to Gagpolnef peptides was sought. Mice could indeed mount a CD8 T cell response against the HIV-1 antigens, indicating that the system worked, at least in this animal model. To further test whether peptides from Gagpolnef could also be presented in the frame of the human MHC class I proteins, a second round of experiments was performed in "humanized" transgenic mice expressing human MHC molecules. The transgenic mice were also able to load Gagpolnef peptides on their human MHC molecule, and these cells could be detected and destroyed by Ag-specific CD8 T cells isolated from HIV-1-infected patients. Therefore, expressing Gagpolnef on attenuated recombinant viruses might represent a valid strategy for anti-HIV-1 immunization in human. Publication #3: This is a review paper (section 4.3, page 91) describing the immune response to CMV and newly developed methods to detect this cellular immune response. Some of it focuses on the detection of T cells by using in vitro manufactured tetramers. These consist of four MHC class I molecules linked together and loaded with the appropriate antigenic peptide. The tetramer can be labeled with a fluorochrome and analyzed with a fluorescence-activated cell sorter. Taken together, the work presented indicates that (i) an appropriate CD8 T cell response consisting of IFN-y/IL-2 double positive effectors, can potentially control viral infection, including HIV-1 infection, (ii) such a response might be triggered by recombinant viral vaccines, and (iii) CD8 T cell response can be monitored by a variety of techniques, including recently-developed MHC class I tetramers. 1. 2. Préambule et résumé élargi Le présent travail de thèse s'intéresse à l'immunité antivirale du point de vue particulier de la réponse adaptative des cellules T. Le travail expérimental est présenté sous la forme de trois articles publiés (2 articles expérimentaux et 1 article de revue, voir sections 4.1, 4.2 et 4.3, pages 58, 66 et 77, respectivement), décrivant des progrès dans la compréhension du contrôle de l'infection virale par les lymphocytes T CD8, ainsi que dans le développement de nouveaux vaccins contre le Virus d'Immunodéficience de Humaine de type 1 (VIH-1). En raison du caractère spécialisé de l'immunité antivirale de type cellulaire, les articles sont précédés par une introduction générale (section 3), dont le but est de pourvoir le lecteur non avisé avec des bases nécessaire à une meilleure appréhension du travail expérimental. Cette introduction présente les grandes lignes du système immunitaire, et décrit de façon générale les 4 virus utilisés dans le travail expérimental: à savoir le virus VIH-1, le Cytomégalovirus (CMV), le virus Epstein Barr (EBV) et le virus Influenza A (Flu). Toutes les sections sont présentées de façon individuelle et peuvent être consultées séparément. La description des 4 virus a une pertinence particulière quant à leur interaction avec le système immun. En effet, ils induisent une panoplie de réponses immunitaires s'étendant aux extrêmes de la réaction de l'hôte. Influenza A est à l'origine d'une maladie cytopathique aiguë, au décours de laquelle le virus est éradiqué par l'hôte. CMV et EBV sont classiquement à l'origine d'infections pauci-symptomatiques, voire asymptomatiques, après lesquelles les virus persistent de façon latente dans la cellule hôte. Cependant, ils restent sous le contrôle du système immun, qui peut prévenir une éventuelle réactivation. Enfin, VIH-1 s'établit à la fois en infection latente - par l'insertion de son génome dans le chromosome des cellules hôtes - et en infection productive et cytopathique, échappant au contrôle immunitaire et détruisant ses cellules cibles. La compréhension des différences fondamentales entre ces différents types d'interactions virus-hôte devraient faciliter le développement de nouvelles stratégies antivirales. Article 1: Le premier article (section 4.1 Page 58) représente l'objet principal de mon travail de laboratoire. Il analyse la capacité des lymphocytes T CD8 spécifiques de différent virus à sécréter de l'interféron gamma (IFN-y) et/ou de l'interleukine 2 (IL-2) après stimulation par leur antigène spécifique. Les cellules T CD8 jouent un rôle crucial dans le contrôle des infections virales. Elles identifient les cellules infectées en détectant des antigènes viraux présentés à la surface de ces mêmes cellules, et éliminent à la fois les cellules infectées et les virus qu'elles contiennent en induisant l'apoptose et/ou la lyse des cellules cibles. Parallèlement, l'identification de l'antigène par la cellule T CD8 la stimule à sécréter des cytokines. L'IFN-γen est un exemple. L'IFN-γ stimule les cellules infectées à développer une activé antivirale intrinsèque. De plus, il attire sur place d'autres cellules de l'inflammation, et active leur fonction d'éradication des pathogènes. L'IL-2 est un autre exemple. L'IL-2 est essentielle à l'expansion clonale des cellules T CD8 spécifiques à un virus donné. Elle est donc essentielle à augmenter le pool de lymphocytes antiviraux. En conséquence, la double capacité de sécréter de l'IFN-γ et de IL-2 pourrait être un avantage pour le contrôle antiviral par les cellules T CD8. Dans ce travail nous avons comparé les proportions de lymphocytes T CD8 doubles positifs (IFN-γ/IL-2) et simples positifs (IFN-γ) chez trois groupes de sujets: (i) des patients infectés par VIH-1 qui ne contrôlent pas l'infection (progresseurs), (ii) des patients infectés par VIH-1, mais contrôlant l'infection malgré l'absence de traitement ("long term non progressors" [LTNP]) et (iii) des donneurs de sang négatifs pour l'infection à VIH-1. Les résultats ont montré que les individus capables de contrôler une infection possédaient des cellules T CD8 doubles positifs (IFN-γ/IL-2), alors que les patients ne contrôlant pas l'infection procédaient prioritairement des CD8 simples positifs (IFN-γ). Spécifiquement, les lymphocytes T spécifiques pour Flu, CMV, EBV, et VII-1-1 chez les LTNP étaient tous IFN-γ/IL-2 doubles positifs. Au contraire, les lymphocytes T CD8 spécifique à VIH-1 étaient IFN-γ simples positifs chez les progresseurs. La capacité de développer une réponse IFN-γ/IL-2 pourraient être primordiale pour le contrôle de l'infection, indépendamment de la nature du virus. En effet, il a été montré que l'absence de sécrétion d'IL2 par les lymphocytes T CD8 corrélait avec leur incapacité de proliférer. Dans nos mains, cette prolifération a pu être restaurée in vitro par l'adjonction exogène d'IL-2. Toutefois, la faisabilité de ce type de complémentation in vivo n'est pas claire. Des expériences additionnelles ont permis de préciser de stade de développement des lymphocytes doubles positifs et simples positifs par le biais des marqueurs CD45RA et CCR7. Il reste maintenant à comprendre pourquoi certains lymphocytes T CD8 spécifiques sont incapables à sécréter de l'IL-2. Article 2: Le deuxième article explore des nouvelles stratégies pour induire une immunité T CD8 spécifique aux protéines du VIH-1, qui sont édités et exposés à la surface des cellules infectées. Ces signaux consistent en fragments de peptide de 8-13 acide aminés provenant de protéines virales, et exposées à la surface des cellules infectées dans le cadre des molécules spécialisées d'histocompatibilité de classe I (en anglais "major histocompatibility class I" ou MHC I). Pour mimer une infection virale, la polyprotéine Gagpolnef du VIH-1 a été insérée et exprimée dans deux vecteurs viraux atténués, soit MVA (provenant de vaccinia virus) ou NYVAC (provenant d'un poxvirus). Ensuite des souris ont été infectées avec ces virus recombinants et la réponse T CD8 aux peptides issus de Gagpolnef a été étudiée. Les souris ont été capables de développer une réponse de type CD8 T contre ces antigènes du VIH-1. Pour tester si ces antigènes pouvaient aussi être présentés par dans le cadre de molécules MHC humaines, des expériences supplémentaires ont été faites avec des souris exprimant un MHC humain. Les résultats de ces manipulations ont montré que des cellules T CD8 spécifique aux protéines du VIH pouvaient être détectées. Ce travail ouvre de nouvelles options quant à l'utilisation des virus recombinants exprimant Gagpolnef comme stratégie vaccinale contre le virus VIH-I chez l'homme. Article 3: Ces revues décrivent la réponse immunitaire à CMV ainsi que des nouvelles méthodes pouvant servir à sa détection. Une partie du manuscrit décrit la détection de cellule T à l'aide de tétramères. Il s'agit de protéines chimériques composées de 4 quatre molécules MHC liées entre elles. Elles sont ensuite "chargées" avec le peptide antigénique approprié, et utilisée pour détecter les cellules T CD8 spécifiques à ce montage. Elles sont aussi marquées par un fluorochrome, qui permet une analyse avec un cytomètre de flux, et l'isolement ultime des CD8 d'intérêt. En résumé, le travail présenté dans cette thèse indique que (i) une réponse T CD8 appropriée - définie par la présence des cellules effectrices doublement positives pour l'IFN-γ et l'IL-2 - semble indispensable pour le contrôle des infections virales, y compris par le VIH-1, (ii) une telle réponse peut être induite par des vaccin viral recombinant, et (iii) la réponse T CD8 peut être analysée et suivie grâce à plusieurs techniques, incluant celle des tétramères de MHC class I. 1.3. Résumé pour un large public Le système immunitaire humain est composé de différents éléments (cellules, tissus et organes) qui participent aux défenses de l'organisme contre les pathogènes (bactéries, virus). Parmi ces cellules, les lymphocytes T CD8, également appelés cellules tueuses, jouent un rôle important dans la réponse immunitaire et le contrôle des infections virales. Les cellules T CD8 reconnaissent de manière spécifique des fragments de protéines virales qui sont exposés à la surface des cellules infectées par le virus. Suite à cette reconnaissance, les cellules T CD8 sont capables de détruire et d'éliminer ces cellules infectées, ainsi que les virus qu'elles contiennent. Dans le contexte d'une infection par le virus de l'immunodéficience humaine (VIH), le virus responsable du SIDA, il a pu être montré que la présence des cellules T CD8 est primordiale. En effet, en l'absence de ces cellules, les individus infectés par le VIH progressent plus rapidement vers le SIDA. Au cours de la vie, l'Homme est exposé à plusieurs virus. Mais à l'opposé du VIH, certains d'entre eux ne causent pas des maladies graves : par exemple le virus de la grippe (Influenza), le cytomégalovirus ou encore le virus d'Epstein-Barr. Certains de ces virus peuvent être contrôlés et éliminés de l'organisme (p. ex. le virus de la grippe), alors que d'autres ne sont que contrôlés par notre système immunitaire et restent présents en petite quantité dans le corps sans avoir d'effet sur notre santé. Le sujet de mon travail de thèse porte sur la compréhension du mécanisme de contrôle des infections virales par le système immunitaire : pourquoi certains virus peuvent être contrôlés ou même éliminés de l'organisme alors que d'autres, et notamment le VIH, ne le sont pas. Ce travail a permis de démontrer que les cellules T CD8 spécifiques du VIH ne sécrètent pas les mêmes substances, nécessaires au développement d'une réponse antivirale efficace, que les cellules T CD8 spécifiques des virus contrôlés (le virus de la grippe, le cytomégalovirus et le virus d'Epstein-Barr). Parallèlement nous avons également observé que les lymphocytes T CD8 spécifiques du VIH ne possèdent pas la capacité de se diviser. Ils sont ainsi incapables d'être présents en quantité suffisante pour assurer un combat efficace contre le virus du SIDA. La (les) différence(s) entre les cellules T CD8 spécifiques aux virus contrôlés (grippe, cytomégalovirus et Epstein-Barr) et au VIH pourront peut-être nous amener à comprendre comment restaurer une immunité efficace contre ce dernier.

A single epidermal stem cell strategy for safe ex vivo gene therapy.

There is a widespread agreement from patient and professional organisations alike that the safety of stem cell therapeutics is of paramount importance, particularly for ex vivo autologous gene therapy. Yet current technology makes it difficult to thoroughly evaluate the behaviour of genetically corrected stem cells before they are transplanted. To address this, we have developed a strategy that permits transplantation of a clonal population of genetically corrected autologous stem cells that meet stringent selection criteria and the principle of precaution. As a proof of concept, we have stably transduced epidermal stem cells (holoclones) obtained from a patient suffering from recessive dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa. Holoclones were infected with self-inactivating retroviruses bearing a COL7A1 cDNA and cloned before the progeny of individual stem cells were characterised using a number of criteria. Clonal analysis revealed a great deal of heterogeneity among transduced stem cells in their capacity to produce functional type VII collagen (COLVII). Selected transduced stem cells transplanted onto immunodeficient mice regenerated a non-blistering epidermis for months and produced a functional COLVII. Safety was assessed by determining the sites of proviral integration, rearrangements and hit genes and by whole-genome sequencing. The progeny of the selected stem cells also had a diploid karyotype, was not tumorigenic and did not disseminate after long-term transplantation onto immunodeficient mice. In conclusion, a clonal strategy is a powerful and efficient means of by-passing the heterogeneity of a transduced stem cell population. It guarantees a safe and homogenous medicinal product, fulfilling the principle of precaution and the requirements of regulatory affairs. Furthermore, a clonal strategy makes it possible to envision exciting gene-editing technologies like zinc finger nucleases, TALENs and homologous recombination for next-generation gene therapy.

Dendritic Cells Cause Bone Lesions in a New Mouse Model of Histiocytosis.

Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH) is a rare disease caused by the clonal accumulation of dendritic Langerhans cells, which is often accompanied by osteolytic lesions. It has been reported that osteoclast-like cells play a major role in the pathogenic bone destruction seen in patients with LCH and these cells are postulated to originate from the fusion of DCs. However, due to the lack of reliable animal models the pathogenesis of LCH is still poorly understood. In this study, we have established a mouse model of histiocytosis- recapitulating human disease for osteolytic lesions seen in LCH patients. At 12 weeks after birth, severe bone lesions were observed in our multisystem histiocytosis (Mushi) model, when CD8α conventional dendritic cells (DCs) are transformed (MuTuDC) and accumulate. Most importantly, our study demonstrates that bone loss in LCH can be accounted for the transdifferentiation of MuTuDCs into functional osteoclasts both in vivo and in vitro. Moreover, we have shown that injected MuTuDCs reverse the osteopetrotic phenotype of oc/oc mice in vivo. In conclusion, our results support a crucial role of DCs in bone lesions in histiocytosis patients. Furthermore, our new model of LCH based on adoptive transfer of MuTuDC lines, leading to bone lesions within 1-2 weeks, will be an important tool for investigating the pathophysiology of this disease and ultimately for evaluating the potential of anti-resorptive drugs for the treatment of bone lesions.