Synthesis and transport of creatine in the CNS: importance for cerebral functions.

J. Neurochem. (2010) 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2010.06935.x Abstract Apart of its well known function of 'energetic buffer' through the creatine/phosphocreatine/creatine kinase system allowing the regeneration of ATP, creatine has been recently suggested as a potential neuromodulator of even true neurotransmitter. Moreover, the recent discovery of primary creatine deficiency syndromes, due to deficiencies in l-arginine : glycine amidinotransferase or guanidinoacetate methyltransferase (the two enzymes allowing creatine synthesis) or in the creatine transporter, has shed new light on creatine synthesis, metabolism and transport, in particular in CNS which appears as the main tissue affected by these creatine deficiencies. Recent data suggest that creatine can cross blood-brain barrier but only with a poor efficiency, and that the brain must ensure parts of its needs in creatine by its own endogenous synthesis. Finally, the recent years have demonstrated the interest to use creatine as a neuroprotective agent in a growing number of neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's and Huntington's diseases. This article aims at reviewing the latest data on creatine metabolism and transport in the brain, in relation to creatine deficiencies and to the potential use of creatine as neuroprotective molecule. Emphasis is also given to the importance of creatine for cerebral function.

From molecular action to physiological outputs: peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors are nuclear receptors at the crossroads of key cellular functions.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) compose a family of three nuclear receptors which act as lipid sensors to modulate gene expression. As such, PPARs are implicated in major metabolic and inflammatory regulations with far-reaching medical consequences, as well as in important processes controlling cellular fate. Throughout this review, we focus on the cellular functions of these receptors. The molecular mechanisms through which PPARs regulate transcription are thoroughly addressed with particular emphasis on the latest results on corepressor and coactivator action. Their implication in cellular metabolism and in the control of the balance between cell proliferation, differentiation and survival is then reviewed. Finally, we discuss how the integration of various intra-cellular signaling pathways allows PPARs to participate to whole-body homeostasis by mediating regulatory crosstalks between organs.

Sorting mechanisms regulating membrane protein traffic in the apical transcytotic pathway of polarized MDCK cells.

The transcytotic pathway followed by the polymeric IgA receptor (pIgR) carrying its bound ligand (dIgA) from the basolateral to the apical surface of polarized MDCK cells has been mapped using morphological tracers. At 20 degreesC dIgA-pIgR internalize to interconnected groups of vacuoles and tubules that comprise the endosomal compartment and in which they codistribute with internalized transferrin receptors (TR) and epidermal growth factor receptors (EGFR). Upon transfer to 37 degreesC the endosome vacuoles develop long tubules that give rise to a distinctive population of 100-nm-diam cup-shaped vesicles containing pIgR. At the same time, the endosome gives rise to multivesicular endosomes (MVB) enriched in EGFR and to 60-nm-diam basolateral vesicles. The cup-shaped vesicles carry the dIgA/pIgR complexes to the apical surface where they exocytose. Using video microscopy and correlative electron microscopy to study cells grown thin and flat we show that endosome vacuoles tubulate in response to dIgA/pIgR but that the tubules contain TR as well as pIgR. However, we show that TR are removed from these dIgA-induced tubules via clathrin-coated buds and, as a result, the cup-shaped vesicles to which the tubules give rise become enriched in dIgA/pIgR. Taken together with the published information available on pIgR trafficking signals, our observations suggest that the steady-state concentrations of TR and unoccupied pIgR on the basolateral surface of polarized MDCK cells are maintained by a signal-dependent, clathrin-based sorting mechanism that operates along the length of the transcytotic pathway. We propose that the differential sorting of occupied receptors within the MDCK endosome is achieved by this clathrin-based mechanism continuously retrieving receptors like TR from the pathways that deliver pIgR to the apical surface and EGFR to the lysosome.

Three-dimensional high-resolution fast spin-echo coronary magnetic resonance angiography.

Due to SNR constraints, current "bright-blood" 3D coronary MRA approaches still suffer from limited spatial resolution when compared to conventional x-ray coronary angiography. Recent 2D fast spin-echo black-blood techniques maximize signal for coronary MRA at no loss in image spatial resolution. This suggests that the extension of black-blood coronary MRA with a 3D imaging technique would allow for a further signal increase, which may be traded for an improved spatial resolution. Therefore, a dual-inversion 3D fast spin-echo imaging sequence and real-time navigator technology were combined for high-resolution free-breathing black-blood coronary MRA. In-plane image resolution below 400 microm was obtained. Magn Reson Med 45:206-211, 2001.

Hypertension. Effets du traitement antihypertenseur sur les fonctions cognitives [Hypertension. Effects of antihypertensive therapy on cognitive functions].

A cause and effect relationship between arterial hypertension and decline of cognitive function has long been suspected. In middle-age subjects indeed, an abnormally high blood pressure is a risk factor for the long-term development of dementia. Presently, it seems crucial to treat hypertensive patients in order to better protect them against cognitive decline. However, in the elderly patients the risk of mental deterioration may also be enhanced when diastolic pressure becomes too low, for example below 70 mmHg. Further studies are required to better define the antihypertensive drug regimen and target blood pressure which would be optimal for the prevention of cerebral small vessel disease.

Étude de la fonction de GLUT8 sur un modèle de souris "knock-out"

Résumé GLUT8 est la première des nouvelles isoformes des GLUT récemment identifiés. Il est fortement exprimé dans les testicules et plus faiblement dans les blastocystes, le cerveau, particulièrement au niveau de l'hippocampe, et le coeur. En conditions basales, il est retenu dans un compartiment intracellulaire. Si on l'exprime en surface cellulaire, par la mutation du motif d'internalisation dileucine, il transporte le glucose avec une bonne affinité. Dans le but d'étudier sa fonction au niveau de l'organisme, nous avons créé un modèle de knock out conditionnel, en entourant le dernier exon du gène de GLUT8 par deux sites loxP. En croisant nos souris avec une souche de souris transgénique exprimant la cre-recombinase dans les cellules de la lignée germinale, nous avons généré un modèle de souris portant la délétion totale de GLUT8 de manière constitutionnelle. Les statistiques effectuées sur les premières naissances indiquent qu'une partie des souris knock out ne survit pas, suggérant un rôle de GLUT8 au niveau du développement embryonnaire. Les souris qui ont survécu ne présentent toutefois pas d'anomalies durant la croissance et sont fertiles. Elles ont des taux de glucose et d'insuline sanguins normaux. Au niveau cérébral, la structure de l'hippocampe n'est pas modifiée par la suppression de GLUT8, cependant, les souris GLUT8-/- présentent une prolifération cellulaire augmentée dans le gyrus denté. Cette augmentation de division cellulaire pourrait être la réponse adaptée à une éventuelle augmentation de la mort cellulaire au niveau de l'hippocampe. Elles ne semblent toutefois pas présenter de défauts cognitifs majeurs dans le bassin de Morris en conditions normales. Toutefois, en conditions de jeûne, elles tendent à une meilleure mémorisation à court terme. Les études morphologiques et histologiques au niveau cardiaque n'ont pas révélé de d'hypertrophie au niveau ventriculaire. La stimulation de la contraction à l'isoprotérénol n'a pas mis en évidence de défaut d'adaptation des coeurs GLUT8-/-. Cependant l'analyse fonctionnelle par électrocardiogramme, en conditions basales, a montré une augmentation de la durée de l'onde P, suggérant un défaut dans la dépolarisation des oreillettes. Nos résultats indiquent que GLUT8 ne joue pas un rôle prédominant dans la survie et la fonction basale des souris. Il pourrait jouer un rôle plus important dans des situations stressantes pour l'organisme, comme l'hypoglycémie ou les conditions d'ischémie qui induiraient son expression à la membrane plasmique et stimuleraient le captage du glucose. Abstract GLUT8 was the first of the recently identified isoform of the GLUT family proteins. It is strongly expressed in the testis. It is also found at a lower level in the blastocyst, in heart and in the brain. Under basal conditions, it is retained in the intracellular compartment, but when the internalization motif dileucine is mutated, GLUT8 translocates to the plasma membrane and transports glucose with a relatively high affinity. To study its function in vivo, we created a conditional knock out mouse model. To do so, we targeted the last exon of the GLUT8 gene with two loxP sites. We then crossed these mice with a transgenic model expressing the cre-recombinase in the gem' line to generate a constitutional total knock out mouse. The statistics made on the first breedings showed that some of the knock out mice do not survive, suggesting a role of GLUT8 in the embryonic development. Conversely mice who survive do not show developmental defects and they are fertile with normal glucose and insulin blood levels. In the brain, the general structure of the hippocampus is not modified by the deletion of GLUT8. However, GLUT8-/- mice show an increase in the cell proliferation in the dentate gyms. This cell proliferation could be due to an increase in the cell death in the hippocampus. When tested in the morris water maze, these mice do not show any cognitive defects in the basal conditions, but they have a tendency to learn better in fasted conditions. The morphological and histological studies made at the heart level did not show any cardiac hypertrophy in the ventricles. The stimulation with isoproterenol did not show any adaptation defects in the GLUT8-/- hearts. However, the functional analysis made in basal conditions with the electrocardiogram showed an increase in the P wave length, suggesting a defect in the atrial depolarization in the knock out mice. Overall, our results show that GLUT8 does not play an important role in the basal general functions in the mice, but might play a more important role during whole organism stress. Hypoglycaemia or ischemia, for example could stimulate the GLUT8 translocation to the plasma membrane to increase specifically glucose uptake. Résumé tout public Les différentes cellules de l'organisme possèdent des propriétés particulières, qui leur permettent de maintenir les fonctions de l'organe auquel elles appartiennent. La membrane plasmique qui les délimite sélectionne les substances qui vont pénétrer à l'intérieur de la cellule et permet ainsi de maintenir un environnement interne constant. Le glucose est une source d'énergie importante pour la cellule et doit pouvoir pénétrer à l'intérieur de la cellule. Il utilise pour cela des protéines de transport qui le feront passer de part et d'autre de la membrane. Les protéines de la famille des GLUT (pour GLUcose Transporter) possèdent cette capacité. GLUT8 est un membre de la famille des GLUT identifié récemment. Il possède la capacité de transporter le glucose quand il se présente à la surface de la cellule. Il est principalement exprimé dans les testicules, dans le coeur et le cerveau et durant le développement embryonnaire. Son rôle n'est toutefois pas encore défini. Ce travail consiste à étudier la fonction de GLUT8 au niveau de l'organisme entier. Nous avons créé un modèle de souris dans lesquelles l'expression de GLUT8 a été supprimée pour mettre en évidence son importance dans le maintien de l'intégrité des fonctions du corps. Les observations effectuées sur les souris qui n'expriment plus GLUT8 nous indiquent que leurs cellules prolifèrent plus vite au niveau de l'hippocampe. L'hippocampe est une structure située dans le cerveau qui est impliquée dans les phénomènes d'apprentissage. Les souris qui ont été testées dans des tâches d'apprentissage n'ont malgré cela pas montré une amélioration de la mémorisation. Dans le coeur, la suppression de GLUT8 semble présenter un défaut quand on mesure l'activité électrique du coeur par électrocardiogramme. Toutefois, ils fonctionnent normalement et ne présentent pas de défauts morphologiques en conditions normales. Les expériences effectuées sur les modèles de souris indiquent que GLUT8 ne jouerait pas un rôle prédominant dans le fonctionnement normal du corps. Il pourrait exercer sa fonction dans des situations plus particulières comme l'hypoglycémie, où il permettrait une meilleure capacité à transporter le glucose dans les cellules.

Investigation of memory, executive functions, and anatomic correlates in asymptomatic FMR1 premutation carriers.

Fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome (FXTAS) is a late-onset movement disorder associated with FMR1 premutation alleles. Asymptomatic premutation (aPM) carriers have preserved cognitive functions, but they present subtle executive deficits. Current efforts are focusing on the identification of specific cognitive markers that can detect aPM carriers at higher risk of developing FXTAS. This study aims at evaluating verbal memory and executive functions as early markers of disease progression while exploring associated brain structure changes using diffusion tensor imaging. We assessed 30 aPM men and 38 intrafamilial controls. The groups perform similarly in the executive domain except for decreased performance in motor planning in aPM carriers. In the memory domain, aPM carriers present a significant decrease in verbal encoding and retrieval. Retrieval is associated with microstructural changes of the white matter (WM) of the left hippocampal fimbria. Encoding is associated with changes in the WM under the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, a region implicated in relational memory encoding. These associations were found in the aPM group only and did not show age-related decline. This may be interpreted as a neurodevelopmental effect of the premutation, and longitudinal studies are required to better understand these mechanisms.

Additive functions in boolean models of gene regulatory network modules.

Gene-on-gene regulations are key components of every living organism. Dynamical abstract models of genetic regulatory networks help explain the genome's evolvability and robustness. These properties can be attributed to the structural topology of the graph formed by genes, as vertices, and regulatory interactions, as edges. Moreover, the actual gene interaction of each gene is believed to play a key role in the stability of the structure. With advances in biology, some effort was deployed to develop update functions in Boolean models that include recent knowledge. We combine real-life gene interaction networks with novel update functions in a Boolean model. We use two sub-networks of biological organisms, the yeast cell-cycle and the mouse embryonic stem cell, as topological support for our system. On these structures, we substitute the original random update functions by a novel threshold-based dynamic function in which the promoting and repressing effect of each interaction is considered. We use a third real-life regulatory network, along with its inferred Boolean update functions to validate the proposed update function. Results of this validation hint to increased biological plausibility of the threshold-based function. To investigate the dynamical behavior of this new model, we visualized the phase transition between order and chaos into the critical regime using Derrida plots. We complement the qualitative nature of Derrida plots with an alternative measure, the criticality distance, that also allows to discriminate between regimes in a quantitative way. Simulation on both real-life genetic regulatory networks show that there exists a set of parameters that allows the systems to operate in the critical region. This new model includes experimentally derived biological information and recent discoveries, which makes it potentially useful to guide experimental research. The update function confers additional realism to the model, while reducing the complexity and solution space, thus making it easier to investigate.

Correlations between motor and intellectual functions in normally developing children between 7 and 18 years.

The relationship between motor and intellectual functions was examined in 252 healthy children from 7 to 18 years using the Zurich Neuromotor Assessment and standardized intelligence tests. The magnitude of Spearman correlations between neuromotor and intellectual scores was generally weak (r = 0.15-0.37). The strongest correlations were found between performance in the pegboard task and visuomotor intelligence (r = 0.35) and between contralateral associated movements and intelligence in boys (r = 0.37). We conclude that specific connections between motor and intellectual functions may exist. However, because the magnitude of correlations is generally weak, we suggest that motor and intellectual domains in healthy children are largely independent.

Free-breathing renal magnetic resonance angiography with steady-state free-precession and slab-selective spin inversion combined with radial k-space sampling and water-selective excitation.

The impact of radial k-space sampling and water-selective excitation on a novel navigator-gated cardiac-triggered slab-selective inversion prepared 3D steady-state free-precession (SSFP) renal MR angiography (MRA) sequence was investigated. Renal MRA was performed on a 1.5-T MR system using three inversion prepared SSFP approaches: Cartesian (TR/TE: 5.7/2.8 ms, FA: 85 degrees), radial (TR/TE: 5.5/2.7 ms, FA: 85 degrees) SSFP, and radial SSFP combined with water-selective excitation (TR/TE: 9.9/4.9 ms, FA: 85 degrees). Radial data acquisition lead to significantly reduced motion artifacts (P < 0.05). SNR and CNR were best using Cartesian SSFP (P < 0.05). Vessel sharpness and vessel length were comparable in all sequences. The addition of a water-selective excitation could not improve image quality. In conclusion, radial k-space sampling reduces motion artifacts significantly in slab-selective inversion prepared renal MRA, while SNR and CNR are decreased. The addition of water-selective excitation could not improve the lower CNR in radial scanning.

Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and its receptor (GIPR): cellular localization, lesion-affected expression, and impaired regenerative axonal growth.

Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) was initially described to be rapidly regulated by endocrine cells in response to nutrient ingestion, with stimulatory effects on insulin synthesis and release. Previously, we demonstrated a significant up-regulation of GIP mRNA in the rat subiculum after fornix injury. To gain more insight into the lesion-induced expression of GIP and its receptor (GIPR), expression profiles of the mRNAs were studied after rat sciatic nerve crush injury in 1) affected lumbar dorsal root ganglia (DRG), 2) spinal cord segments, and 3) proximal and distal nerve fragments by means of quantitative RT-PCR. Our results clearly identified lesion-induced as well as tissue type-specific mRNA regulation of GIP and its receptor. Furthermore, comprehensive immunohistochemical stainings not only confirmed and exceeded the previous observation of neuronal GIP expression but also revealed corresponding GIPR expression, implying putative modulatory functions of GIP/GIPR signaling in adult neurons. In complement, we also observed expression of GIP and its receptor in myelinating Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes. Polarized localization of GIPR in the abaxonal Schwann cell membranes, plasma membrane-associated GIPR expression of satellite cells, and ependymal GIPR expression strongly suggests complex cell type-specific functions of GIP and GIPR in the adult nervous system that are presumably mediated by autocrine and paracrine interactions, respectively. Notably, in vivo analyses with GIPR-deficient mice suggest a critical role of GIP/GIPR signal transduction in promoting spontaneous recovery after nerve crush, insofar as traumatic injury of GIPR-deficient mouse sciatic nerve revealed impaired axonal regeneration compared with wild-type mice.

Inferring about individual drug and schizotypy effects on cognitive functioning in polydrug using mephedrone users before and after clubbing

Objective: Mephedrone has been recently made illegal in Europe, but little empirical evidence is available on its impact on human cognitive functions. We investigated acute and chronic effects of mephedrone consumption on drug-sensitive cognitive measures, while also accounting for the influence of associated additional drug use and personality features. Method: Twenty-six volunteers from the general population performed tasks measuring verbal learning, verbal fluency and cognitive flexibility before and after a potential drug-taking situation (pre- and post-clubbing at dance clubs, respectively). Participants also provided information on chronic and recent drug use, schizotypal (O-LIFE) and depressive symptoms (Beck depression inventory), sleep pattern and premorbid IQ. Results: We found that i) mephedrone users performed worse than non-users pre-clubbing, and deteriorated from the pre-clubbing to the post-clubbing assessment, ii) pre-clubbing cannabis and amphetamine (not mephedrone) use predicted relative cognitive attenuations, iii) post-clubbing, depression scores predicted relative cognitive attenuations, and iv) schizotypy was largely unrelated to cognitive functioning, apart from a negative relationship between cognitive disorganisation and verbal fluency. Conclusion: Results suggest that polydrug use and depressive symptoms in the general population negatively affect cognition. For schizotypy, only elevated cognitive disorganisation showed potential links to a pathological cognitive profile previously reported along the psychosis dimension.

CREB-2, a cellular CRE-dependent transcription repressor, functions in association with Tax as an activator of the human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 promoter.

The Tax protein of the human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) has been implicated in human T-cell immortalization. The primary function of Tax is to transcriptionally activate the HTLV-1 promoter, but Tax is also known to stimulate expression of cellular genes. It has been reported to associate with several transcription factors, as well as proteins not involved in transcription. To better characterize potential cellular targets of Tax present in infected cells, a Saccharomyces cerevisiae two-hybrid screening was performed with a cDNA library constructed from the HTLV-1-infected MT2 cell line. From this study, we found 158 positive clones representing seven different cDNAs. We focused our attention on the cDNA encoding the transcription factor CREB-2. CREB-2 is an unconventional member of the ATF/CREB family in that it lacks a protein kinase A (PKA) phosphorylation site and has been reported to negatively regulate transcription from the cyclic AMP response element of the human enkephalin promoter. In this study, we demonstrate that CREB-2 cooperates with Tax to enhance viral transcription and that its basic-leucine zipper C-terminal domain is required for both in vitro and in vivo interactions with Tax. Our results confirm that the activation of the HTLV-1 promoter through Tax and factors of the ATF/CREB family is PKA independent.