Expression and functional activity of glucagon, glucagon-like peptide I, and glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide receptors in rat pancreatic islet cells.

Rat pancreatic alpha- and beta-cells are critically dependent on hormonal signals generating cyclic AMP (cAMP) as a synergistic messenger for nutrient-induced hormone release. Several peptides of the glucagon-secretin family have been proposed as physiological ligands for cAMP production in beta-cells, but their relative importance for islet function is still unknown. The present study shows expression at the RNA level in beta-cells of receptors for glucagon, glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), and glucagon-like peptide I(7-36) amide (GLP-I), while RNA from islet alpha-cells hybridized only with GIP receptor cDNA. Western blots confirmed that GLP-I receptors were expressed in beta-cells and not in alpha-cells. Receptor activity, measured as cellular cAMP production after exposing islet beta-cells for 15 min to a range of peptide concentrations, was already detected using 10 pmol/l GLP-I and 50 pmol/l GIP but required 1 nmol/l glucagon. EC50 values of GLP-I- and GIP-induced cAMP formation were comparable (0.2 nmol/l) and 45-fold lower than the EC50 of glucagon (9 nmol/l). Maximal stimulation of cAMP production was comparable for the three peptides. In purified alpha-cells, 1 nmol/l GLP-I failed to increase cAMP levels, while 10 pmol/l to 10 nmol/l GIP exerted similar stimulatory effects as in beta-cells. In conclusion, these data show that stimulation of glucagon, GLP-I, and GIP receptors in rat beta-cells causes cAMP production required for insulin release, while adenylate cyclase in alpha-cells is positively regulated by GIP.

Activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) by their ligands and protein kinase A activators.

The nuclear peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) alpha, beta, and gamma activate the transcription of multiple genes involved in lipid metabolism. Several natural and synthetic ligands have been identified for each PPAR isotype but little is known about the phosphorylation state of these receptors. We show here that activators of protein kinase A (PKA) can enhance mouse PPAR activity in the absence and the presence of exogenous ligands in transient transfection experiments. Activation function 1 (AF-1) of PPARs was dispensable for transcriptional enhancement, whereas activation function 2 (AF-2) was required for this effect. We also show that several domains of PPAR can be phosphorylated by PKA in vitro. Moreover, gel retardation experiments suggest that PKA stabilizes binding of the liganded PPAR to DNA. PKA inhibitors decreased not only the kinase-dependent induction of PPARs but also their ligand-dependent induction, suggesting an interaction between both pathways that leads to maximal transcriptional induction by PPARs. Moreover, comparing PPAR alpha knockout (KO) with PPAR alpha WT mice, we show that the expression of the acyl CoA oxidase (ACO) gene can be regulated by PKA-activated PPAR alpha in liver. These data demonstrate that the PKA pathway is an important modulator of PPAR activity, and we propose a model associating this pathway in the control of fatty acid beta-oxidation under conditions of fasting, stress, and exercise.

The α1-adrenergic receptors: diversity of signaling networks and regulation.

The α(1)-adrenergic receptor (AR) subtypes (α(1a), α(1b), and α(1d)) mediate several physiological effects of epinephrine and norepinephrine. Despite several studies in recombinant systems and insight from genetically modified mice, our understanding of the physiological relevance and specificity of the α(1)-AR subtypes is still limited. Constitutive activity and receptor oligomerization have emerged as potential features regulating receptor function. Another recent paradigm is that β arrestins and G protein-coupled receptors themselves can act as scaffolds binding a variety of proteins and this can result in growing complexity of the receptor-mediated cellular effects. The aim of this review is to summarize our current knowledge on some recently identified functional paradigms and signaling networks that might help to elucidate the functional diversity of the α(1)-AR subtypes in various organs.

Report of the ECCO workshop on anti-TNF therapy failures in inflammatory bowel diseases: biological roles and effects of TNF and TNF antagonists.

This second section of the first ECCO pathogenesis workshop on anti-TNF therapy failures in inflammatory bowel diseases addresses the biological roles of TNFα and the effects and mechanisms of action of TNFα antagonists. Mechanisms underlying their failure, including induction of TNF-independent inflammatory pathways and phenomena of paradoxical inflammation are discussed.

PPAR beta/delta Agonists Modulate Platelet Function via a Mechanism Involving PPAR Receptors and Specific Association/Repression of PKC alpha-Brief Report

Objectives-Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor beta/delta (PPAR beta/delta) is a nuclear receptor found in platelets. PPAR beta/delta agonists acutely inhibit platelet function within a few minutes of addition. As platelets are anucleated, the effects of PPAR beta/delta agonists on platelets must be nongenomic. Currently, the particular role of PPAR beta/delta receptors and their intracellular signaling pathways in platelets are not known. Methods and Results-We have used mice lacking PPAR beta/delta (PPAR beta/delta(-/-)) to show the effects of the PPAR beta/delta agonist GW501516 on platelet adhesion and cAMP levels are mediated specifically by PPAR beta/delta, however GW501516 had no PPAR beta/delta-specific effect on platelet aggregation. Studies in human platelets showed that PKC alpha, which can mediate platelet activation, was bound and repressed by PPAR beta/delta after platelets were treated with GW501516. Conclusions-These data provide evidence of a novel mechanism by which PPAR receptors influence platelet activity and thereby thrombotic risk. (Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2009; 29: 1871-1873.)

Chemical probes that differentially modulate peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha and BLTR, nuclear and cell surface receptors for leukotriene B(4).

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha)is a nuclear receptor for various fatty acids, eicosanoids, and hypolipidemic drugs. In the presence of ligand, this transcription factor increases expression of target genes that are primarily associated with lipid homeostasis. We have previously reported PPARalpha as a nuclear receptor of the inflammatory mediator leukotriene B(4) (LTB(4)) and demonstrated an anti-inflammatory function for PPARalpha in vivo (Devchand, P. R., Keller, H., Peters, J. M., Vazquez, M., Gonzalez, F. J., and Wahli, W. (1996) Nature 384, 39-43). LTB(4) also has a cell surface receptor (BLTR) that mediates proinflammatory events, such as chemotaxis and chemokinesis (Yokomizo, T., Izumi, T., Chang, K., Takuwa, Y., and Shimizu, T. (1997) Nature 387, 620-624). In this study, we report on chemical probes that differentially modulate activity of these two LTB(4) receptors. The compounds selected were originally characterized as synthetic BLTR effectors, both agonists and antagonists. Here, we evaluate the compounds as effectors of the three PPAR isotypes (alpha, beta, and gamma) by transient transfection assays and also determine whether the compounds are ligands for these nuclear receptors by coactivator-dependent receptor ligand interaction assay, a semifunctional in vitro assay. Because the compounds are PPARalpha selective, we further analyze their potency in a biological assay for the PPARalpha-mediated activity of lipid accumulation. These chemical probes will prove invaluable in dissecting processes that involve nuclear and cell surface LTB(4) receptors and also aid in drug discovery programs.

The role of Notch receptors in T helper differentiation

After encountering antigens, naïve CD4+ Τ cells can differentiate into various effector Τ helper (Th) cell subsets, including CD4+ Thi, Th2, Thi7, regulatory Τ cells and the recently described follicular Τ helper cells (TFH cells). To date, most of the studies used either gain-of-function approaches that do not reflect the physiological Notch signaling intensity or loss-of-function models that block the entire Notch pathway. The contribution of single Notch receptors during Th differentiation occurring upon infection has not been investigated yet. In the present thesis, we wanted to assess the individual role of Notchi and Notch2 in Th differentiation, by using mice with Τ cell-specific deletion of Notchi, Notch2 or both (NiN2/iCD4Cre) in different models of infection/immunization.¦In the first part, we characterized the role of Notchi and Notch2 in Thi differentiation. We used experimental infection with the protozoan parasite Leishmania major, known to induce a protective Thi immune response in mice on the C57BL/6 background. Mice deficient for both Notchi and Notch2 developed unhealing lesions and were unable to control the parasite burden in their footpad. A profound defect in IFNy secretion by CD4+ Τ cells was shown to be responsible for the susceptibility of these mice. Although CD4+ Τ cells did not secrete IFNy following L. major infection, they exhibited higher IFNymRNA expression as well as higher frequency of CD4+IFNy+Τ cells in dLN. Altogether, these data indicate that Notch is dispensable for the differentiation of Thi cells expressing IFNy but controls, directly or not, the secretion of IFNy, allowing the development of a fully functional Thi immune response.¦In the second part of this thesis, we determined whether Notch is involved in differentiation of follicular Τ helper (TFH) cells. Using different models of immunization (NP-CGG, Schistosoma mansoni eggs) or infection (Leishmania mexicana), we showed that NiN2ACD4Cre mice were unable to generate TFH cells, displayed impaired germinal center (GC) formation as well as a profound defect in high affinity specific-antibodies secretion. We demonstrated an essential and previously unknown role of Notch in TFH cell development, the consequent GC formation and high affinity antibodies secretion, although the mechanisms by which Notch affects TFH development remain to be clearly demonstrated.¦-¦Lors d'une réponse immune, les lymphocytes Τ CD4+ se différencient en différentes sous- populations de lymphocytes Τ auxiliaires (T helper ou Th en anglais) incluant les populations de cellules Thi, Th2, Thn.7, Τ régulatrices ou Τ folliculaires. De nombreuses études ont montré un rôle de la voie de signalisation Notch dans la différentiation des lymphocytes Τ auxiliaires, bien que les résultats soient controversés. A ce jour, la majorité de ces études sont basées sur des modèles de gain de fonction qui ne reflètent pas le niveau physiologique du signal ou des modèles de perte de fonction pour lesquels toute la voie de signalisation est bloquée. De ce fait, nous avons voulu établir le rôle individuel de Notchi et Notch2 dans la réponse immune de type Thi et dans la différentiation des lymphocytes Τ auxiliaires folliculaires avec l'aide de souris déficientes pour Notchi, Notch2 ou les 2 (NiN2ACD4Cre) à la surface de leurs cellules T.¦Dans la première partie de cette thèse, nous avons analysé le rôle de Notch dans la différentiation de type Thi suite à infection avec le parasite Leishmania major, connu pour induire une forte réponse Thi dans des souris de souche C57BL/6. Les souris déficientes pour Notchi et Notch2 développent une importante lésion et sont incapables de contrôler la prolifération du parasite au site d'infection. Le profond défaut de la sécrétion d'IFNy par les cellules Τ des ganglions drainants est probablement responsable de la susceptibilité de ces souris à L. major. Bien que les cellules Τ ne sécrètent pas d'IFNy, nous avons observé des niveaux plus importants d'expression au niveau de l'ARN messager, et une proportion plus élevée de cellules positives pour CD4 et IFNy. Ces résultats indiquent que Notch est nécessaire pour la sécrétion d'IFNy mais pas pour la différentiation de cellules compétentes pour l'IFNy.¦Dans un second temps, nous avons voulu déterminer si Notch est impliqué dans la différentiation des cellules Τ folliculaires. En utilisant divers modèles d'immunisation (avec NP-CGG ou des oeufs de Schistosoma mansoni) ou d'infection (avec L. mexicana), nous avons montré que les souris NlN2ACD4Cre sont incapables de générer des cellules Τ folliculaires. En conséquence, la formation des centres germinatifs et la sécrétion d'anticorps de haute affinité sont profondément affectés. Nous avons démontré dans cette seconde partie un rôle crucial et inconnu à ce jour de Notch dans la différentiation des cellules Τ et en conséquence dans la formation des centres germinatifs et la sécrétion des anticorps de haute affinité, bien que les mécanismes par lesquels Notch contrôle cette différentiation restent à identifier.¦-¦Lors d'une réponse immune, les lymphocytes Τ CD// se différencient en différentes sous- populations de lymphocytes Τ auxiliaires de types Thi, Th2, Thi7, régulatrices ou folliculaires, définies selon la sécrétion de cytokines spécifiques. Le rôle de ces sous-populations dans le contrôle de diverses infections ou leur association avec de nombreuses maladies rend la compréhension des mécanismes de différentiation de ces cellules particulièrement importante. De nombreux facteurs sont impliqués dans ce processus, tels que la présence de diverses cytokines dans l'environnement, la nature de l'antigène ou encore la force de la stimulation. Par ailleurs, de nombreuses études ont montré un rôle de la voie de signalisation Notch dans la différentiation des lymphocytes T, bien que les résultats soient controversés. Dans cette thèse, nous avons voulu évaluer le rôle individuel des récepteurs Notch dans la différentiation des cellules Τ auxiliaires de type Thi et folliculaires à l'aide de souris dont les récepteurs Notch sont spécifiquement absents à la surface des lymphocytes T.¦Dans la première partie, nous avons utilisé le modèle d'infection au parasite Leishmania major, connu pour induire une forte réponse protectrice de type Thi dans la majorité des souches de souris. Suite à l'infection, les souris déficientes pour les récepteurs Notch sont incapables de contrôler la prolifération du parasite et développent une importante lésion au site d'infection. Cette susceptibilité est due à l'incapacité des cellules Τ auxiliaires à sécréter une cytokine spécifique des cellules de type Thi et nécessaire à l'éradication du parasite, l'IFNy. Ces résultats indiquent que les récepteurs Notch sont indispensables au développement d'une réponse Thi fonctionnelle, permettant la guérison suite à l'infection avec L. major.¦Dans la deuxième partie de cette thèse, nous avons voulu déterminer si Notch est impliqué dans la différentiation des lymphocytes Τ folliculaires. Ces cellules ont la particularité d'aider les lymphocytes Β à former des centres germinatifs au sein desquels les lymphocytes Β prolifèrent et sécrètent des anticorps, un processus nécessaire à la protection contre les pathogènes. Actuellement, l'efficacité de la majorité des vaccins repose sur la sécrétion d'anticorps par les lymphocytes B, aidés par les cellules Τ folliculaires. En raison du rôle important de ces cellules dans l'éradication des pathogènes et lors d'un processus de vaccination, il est important de connaître les facteurs et les mécanismes permettant la différentiation de ces cellules. Dans cette étude, nous montrons que la formation des cellules Τ folliculaires dépend de la voie de signalisation Notch, impliquant un rôle essentiel de cette molécule dans l'induction de la sécrétion d'anticorps par les lymphocytes B.

CD28-negative cytolytic effector T cells frequently express NK receptors and are present at variable proportions in circulating lymphocytes from healthy donors and melanoma patients.

In humans, NK receptors are expressed by natural killer cells and some T cells, the latter of which are preferentially alphabetaTCR+ CD8+ cytolytic T lymphocytes (CTL). In this study we analyzed the expression of nine NK receptors (p58.1, p58.2, p70, p140, ILT2, NKRP1A, ZIN176, CD94 and CD94/NKG2A) in PBL from both healthy donors and melanoma patients. The percentages of NK receptor-positive T cells (NKT cells) varied strongly, and this variation was more important between individual patients than between individual healthy donors. In all the individuals, the NKT cells were preferentially CD28-, and a significant correlation was found between the percentage of CD28- T cells and the percentage of NK receptor+ T cells. Based on these data and the known activated phenotype of CD28- T cells, we propose that the CD28- CD8+ T cell pool represents or contains the currently active CTL population, and that the frequent expression of NK receptors reflects regulatory mechanisms modulating the extent of CTL effector function. Preliminary results indicate that some tumor antigen-specific T cells may indeed be CD28- and express NK receptors in vivo.

Systematic assessment of factors influencing preferences of crohn's disease patients in selecting an anti-tumor necrosis factor agent (CHOOSE TNF TRIAL).

BACKGROUND: Infliximab (IFX), adalimumab (ADA), and certolizumab pegol (CZP) have similar efficacy in induction and maintenance of clinical remission in Crohn's disease (CD). Given the comparable nature of these drugs, patient preferences may influence the choice of the product. We aimed to identify factors that may contribute to CD patients' decision in selecting one anti-tumor necrosis factor (TNF) agent over the others. METHODS: A prospective survey was performed among anti-TNF-naïve CD patients. Prior to completion of a questionnaire, patients were provided with a written description of the three anti-TNF agents, focusing on indications, mode of administration, side effects, and scientific evidence of efficacy and safety for each drug. RESULTS: One hundred patients (47 females, mean age 45 ± 16 years, range 19-81) with an ileal, colonic, or ileocolonic (33%, 40%, and 27%, respectively) disease location completed the questionnaire. Based on the information provided, 36% of patients preferred ADA, 28% CZP, and 25% IFX, whereas 11% were undecided. The patients' decision in selecting a specific anti-TNF drug was influenced by the following factors: ease of use (69%), time required for therapy (34%), time interval between application of the drug (31%), scientific evidence for efficacy (19%), and fear of syringes (10%). CONCLUSIONS: The majority of patients preferred anti-TNF medications that were administered by subcutaneous injection rather than by intravenous infusion. Ease of use and time required for therapy were two major factors influencing the patients' selection of a specific anti-TNF drug. Patients' individual preferences should be taken into account when prescribing anti-TNF drugs. (Inflamm Bowel Dis 2012).

Rhumatologie. Anti-TNF alpha: quels risques infectieux? Recommandations pratiques [Rheumatology. TNF alpha-inhibitors: infection risks? Practical recommendations].

Anti-TNF alpha are immunomodulatory treatments prescribed for some rheumatologic inflammatory diseases (ex: spondylarthropathy, rheumatoid polyarthritis). The randomised studies suggested that anti-TNF alpha therapy is associated with an overall risk of infectious diseases. The results of the observational studies are more reassuring. In this article, we will describe some results of theses studies and propose some practical recommendations in use of the anti-TNF alpha therapy.

Diurnal inhibition of NMDA-EPSCs at rat hippocampal mossy fibre synapses through orexin-2 receptors.

Diurnal release of the orexin neuropeptides orexin-A (Ox-A, hypocretin-1) and orexin-B (Ox-B, hypocretin-2) stabilises arousal, regulates energy homeostasis and contributes to cognition and learning. However, whether cellular correlates of brain plasticity are regulated through orexins, and whether they do so in a time-of-day-dependent manner, has never been assessed. Immunohistochemically we found sparse but widespread innervation of hippocampal subfields through Ox-A- and Ox-B-containing fibres in young adult rats. The actions of Ox-A were studied on NMDA receptor (NMDAR)-mediated excitatory synaptic transmission in acute hippocampal slices prepared around the trough (Zeitgeber time (ZT) 4-8, corresponding to 4-8 h into the resting phase) and peak (ZT 23) of intracerebroventricular orexin levels. At ZT 4-8, exogenous Ox-A (100 nm in bath) inhibited NMDA receptor-mediated excitatory postsynaptic currents (NMDA-EPSCs) at mossy fibre (MF)-CA3 (to 55.6 ± 6.8% of control, P = 0.0003) and at Schaffer collateral-CA1 synapses (70.8 ± 6.3%, P = 0.013), whereas it remained ineffective at non-MF excitatory synapses in CA3. Ox-A actions were mediated postsynaptically and blocked by the orexin-2 receptor (OX2R) antagonist JNJ10397049 (1 μm), but not by orexin-1 receptor inhibition (SB334867, 1 μm) or by adrenergic and cholinergic antagonists. At ZT 23, inhibitory effects of exogenous Ox-A were absent (97.6 ± 2.9%, P = 0.42), but reinstated (87.2 ± 3.3%, P = 0.002) when endogenous orexin signalling was attenuated for 5 h through i.p. injections of almorexant (100 mg kg(-1)), a dual orexin receptor antagonist. In conclusion, endogenous orexins modulate hippocampal NMDAR function in a time-of-day-dependent manner, suggesting that they may influence cellular plasticity and consequent variations in memory performance across the sleep-wake cycle.

Distribution of neuropeptide Y Y1 receptors in rodent peripheral tissues.

Using a sensitive immunohistochemical technique, the localization of neuropeptide Y (NPY) Y1-receptor (Y1R)-like immunoreactivity (LI) was studied in various peripheral tissues of rat. Wild-type (WT) and Y1R-knockout (KO) mice were also analyzed. Y1R-LI was found in small arteries and arterioles in many tissues, with particularly high levels in the thyroid and parathyroid glands. In the thyroid gland, Y1R-LI was seen in blood vessel walls lacking alpha-smooth muscle actin, i.e., perhaps in endothelial cells of capillaries. Larger arteries lacked detectable Y1R-LI. A distinct Y1R-immunoreactive (IR) reticulum was seen in the WT mouse spleen, but not in Y1R-KO mouse or rat. In the gastrointestinal tract, Y1R-positive neurons were observed in the myenteric plexus, and a few enteroendocrine cells were Y1R-IR. Some cells in islets of Langerhans in the pancreas were Y1R-positive, and double immunostaining showed coexistence with somatostatin in D-cells. In the urogenital tract, Y1R-LI was observed in the collecting tubule cells of the renal papillae and in some epithelial cells of the seminal vesicle. Some chromaffin cells of adrenal medulla were positive for Y1R. The problem of the specificity of the Y1R-LI is evaluated using adsorption tests as well as comparisons among rat, WT mouse, and mouse with deleted Y1R. Our findings support many earlier studies based on other methodologies, showing that Y1Rs on smooth muscle cells of blood vessels mediate NPY-induced vasoconstriction in various organs. In addition, Y1Rs in other cells in parenchymal tissues of several organs suggest nonvascular effects of NPY via the Y1R.

Permanent correction of an inherited ectodermal dysplasia with recombinant EDA.

X-linked hypohidrotic ectodermal dysplasia (XLHED; OMIM 305100) is a genetic disorder characterized by absence or deficient function of hair, teeth and sweat glands. Affected children may experience life-threatening high fever resulting from reduced ability to sweat. Mice with the Tabby phenotype share many symptoms with human XLHED patients because both phenotypes are caused by mutations of the syntenic ectodysplasin A gene (Eda) on the X chromosome. Two main splice variants of Eda, encoding EDA1 and EDA2, engage the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) family receptors EDAR and XEDAR, respectively. The EDA1 protein, acting through EDAR, is essential for proper formation of skin appendages; the functions of EDA2 and XEDAR are not known. EDA1 must be proteolytically processed to a soluble form to be active. Here, we show that treatment of pregnant Tabby mice with a recombinant form of EDA1, engineered to cross the placental barrier, permanently rescues the Tabby phenotype in the offspring. Notably, sweat glands can also be induced by EDA1 after birth. This is the first example of a developmental genetic defect that can be permanently corrected by short-term treatment with a recombinant protein.