Optimization of Cu(II) biosorption onto ascophyllum nodosum by factorial design methodology

A Box–Behnken factorial design coupled with surface response methodology was used to evaluate the effects of temperature, pH and initial concentration in the Cu(II) sorption process onto the marine macroalgae Ascophyllum nodosum. The effect of the operating variables on metal uptake capacitywas studied in a batch system and a mathematical model showing the influence of each variable and their interactions was obtained. Study ranges were 10–40ºC for temperature, 3.0–5.0 for pH and 50–150mgL−1 for initial Cu(II) concentration. Within these ranges, the biosorption capacity is slightly dependent on temperature but markedly increases with pH and initial concentration of Cu(II). The uptake capacities predicted by the model are in good agreement with the experimental values. Maximum biosorption capacity of Cu(II) by A. nodosum is 70mgg−1 and corresponds to the following values of those variables: temperature = 40ºC, pH= 5.0 and initial Cu(II) concentration = 150mgL−1.

Optimization of HS-SPME analytical conditions using factorial design for trihalomethanes determination in swimming pool water samples

Trihalomethanes (THMs) are widely referred and studied as disinfection by-products (DBPs). The THMs that are most commonly detected are chloroform (TCM), bromodichloromethane (BDCM), chlorodibromomethane (CDBM), and bromoform (TBM). Several studies regarding the determination of THMs in swimming pool water and air samples have been published. This paper reviews the most recent work in this field, with a special focus on water and air sampling, sample preparation and analytical determination methods. An experimental study has been developed in order to optimize the headspace solid-phasemicroextraction (HS-SPME) conditions of TCM, BDCM, CDBM and TBM from water samples using a 23 factorial design. An extraction temperature of 45 °C, for 25min, and a desorption time of 5 min were found to be the best conditions. Analysis was performed by gas chromatography with an electron capture detector (GC-ECD). The method was successfully applied to a set of 27 swimming pool water samples collected in the Oporto area (Portugal). TCM was the only THM detected with levels between 4.5 and 406.5 μg L−1. Four of the samples exceeded the guideline value for total THMs in swimming pool water (100 μgL−1) indicated by the Portuguese Health Authority.

Testing Nelder-Mead Based Repulsion Algorithms for Multiple Roots of Nonlinear Systems via a Two-Level Factorial Design of Experiments

This paper addresses the challenging task of computing multiple roots of a system of nonlinear equations. A repulsion algorithm that invokes the Nelder-Mead (N-M) local search method and uses a penalty-type merit function based on the error function, known as 'erf', is presented. In the N-M algorithm context, different strategies are proposed to enhance the quality of the solutions and improve the overall efficiency. The main goal of this paper is to use a two-level factorial design of experiments to analyze the statistical significance of the observed differences in selected performance criteria produced when testing different strategies in the N-M based repulsion algorithm. The main goal of this paper is to use a two-level factorial design of experiments to analyze the statistical significance of the observed differences in selected performance criteria produced when testing different strategies in the N-M based repulsion algorithm.

Optimization process of polyester polymer mortars modified with recycled GFRP waste aggregates – application of factorial experiment design-

Glass fibre-reinforced plastics (GFRP), nowadays commonly used in the construction, transportation and automobile sectors, have been considered inherently difficult to recycle due to both: cross-linked nature of thermoset resins, which cannot be remolded, and complex composition of the composite itself, which includes glass fibres, matrix and different types of inorganic fillers. Presently, most of the GFRP waste is landfilled leading to negative environmental impacts and supplementary added costs. With an increasing awareness of environmental matters and the subsequent desire to save resources, recycling would convert an expensive waste disposal into a profitable reusable material. There are several methods to recycle GFR thermostable materials: (a) incineration, with partial energy recovery due to the heat generated during organic part combustion; (b) thermal and/or chemical recycling, such as solvolysis, pyrolisis and similar thermal decomposition processes, with glass fibre recovering; and (c) mechanical recycling or size reduction, in which the material is subjected to a milling process in order to obtain a specific grain size that makes the material suitable as reinforcement in new formulations. This last method has important advantages over the previous ones: there is no atmospheric pollution by gas emission, a much simpler equipment is required as compared with ovens necessary for thermal recycling processes, and does not require the use of chemical solvents with subsequent environmental impacts. In this study the effect of incorporation of recycled GFRP waste materials, obtained by means of milling processes, on mechanical behavior of polyester polymer mortars was assessed. For this purpose, different contents of recycled GFRP waste materials, with distinct size gradings, were incorporated into polyester polymer mortars as sand aggregates and filler replacements. The effect of GFRP waste treatment with silane coupling agent was also assessed. Design of experiments and data treatment were accomplish by means of factorial design and analysis of variance ANOVA. The use of factorial experiment design, instead of the one factor at-a-time method is efficient at allowing the evaluation of the effects and possible interactions of the different material factors involved. Experimental results were promising toward the recyclability of GFRP waste materials as polymer mortar aggregates, without significant loss of mechanical properties with regard to non-modified polymer mortars.

Mix design process of polyester polymer mortars modified with recycled GFRP waste materials

In this study, the effect of incorporation of recycled glass fibre reinforced plastics (GFRP) waste materials, obtained by means of shredding and milling processes, on mechanical behaviour of polyester polymer mortars (PM) was assessed. For this purpose, different contents of GFRP recyclates, between 4% up to 12% in weight, were incorporated into polyester PM materials as sand aggregates and filler replacements. The effect of the addition of a silane coupling agent to resin binder was also evaluated. Applied waste material was proceeding from the shredding of the leftovers resultant from the cutting and assembly processes of GFRP pultrusion profiles. Currently, these leftovers as well as non-conform products and scrap resulting from pultrusion manufacturing process are landfilled, with additional costs to producers and suppliers. Hence, besides the evident environmental benefits, a viable and feasible solution for these wastes would also conduct to significant economic advantages. Design of experiments and data treatment were accomplish by means of full factorial design approach and analysis of variance ANOVA. Experimental results were promising toward the recyclability of GFRP waste materials as partial replacement of aggregates and reinforcement for PM materials, with significant improvements on mechanical properties of resultant mortars with regards to waste-free formulations.

Design of experiments applied to the mix design process of polymer mortar materials modified with GFRP recyclates

In this work, the effect of incorporation of recycled glass fibre reinforced plastics (GFRP) waste materials, obtained by means of shredding and milling processes, on mechanical behavior of polyester polymer mortar (PM) materials was assessed. For this purpose, different contents of GFRP recyclates (between 4% up to 12% in mass), were incorporated into polyester PM materials as sand aggregates and filler replacements. The effect of silane coupling agent addition to resin binder was also evaluated. Applied waste material was proceeding from the shredding of the leftovers resultant from the cutting and assembly processes of GFRP pultrusion profiles. Currently, these leftovers, jointly with unfinished products and scrap resulting from pultrusion manufacturing process, are landfilled, with supplementary added costs. Thus, besides the evident environmental benefits, a viable and feasible solution for these wastes would also conduct to significant economic advantages. Design of experiments and data treatment were accomplish by means of full factorial design approach and analysis of variance ANOVA. Experimental results were promising toward the recyclability of GFRP waste materials as aggregates and reinforcement for PM materials, with significant improvements on mechanical properties with regard to non-modified formulations.

Optimization of the Ion Source-Mass Spectrometry Parameters in Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory and Analgesic Pharmaceuticals Analysis by a Design of Experiments Approach

The flow rates of drying and nebulizing gas, heat block and desolvation line temperatures and interface voltage are potential electrospray ionization parameters as they may enhance sensitivity of the mass spectrometer. The conditions that give higher sensitivity of 13 pharmaceuticals were explored. First, Plackett-Burman design was implemented to screen significant factors, and it was concluded that interface voltage and nebulizing gas flow were the only factors that influence the intensity signal for all pharmaceuticals. This fractionated factorial design was projected to set a full 2(2) factorial design with center points. The lack-of-fit test proved to be significant. Then, a central composite face-centered design was conducted. Finally, a stepwise multiple linear regression and subsequently an optimization problem solving were carried out. Two main drug clusters were found concerning the signal intensities of all runs of the augmented factorial design. p-Aminophenol, salicylic acid, and nimesulide constitute one cluster as a result of showing much higher sensitivity than the remaining drugs. The other cluster is more homogeneous with some sub-clusters comprising one pharmaceutical and its respective metabolite. It was observed that instrumental signal increased when both significant factors increased with maximum signal occurring when both codified factors are set at level +1. It was also found that, for most of the pharmaceuticals, interface voltage influences the intensity of the instrument more than the nebulizing gas flowrate. The only exceptions refer to nimesulide where the relative importance of the factors is reversed and still salicylic acid where both factors equally influence the instrumental signal. Graphical Abstract ᅟ.

Basic dyestuffs removal from textile effluents using feathers: equilibrium, kinetic and column studies

This research work has been focused in the study of gallinaceous feathers, a waste that may be valorised as sorbent, to remove the Dark Blue Astrazon 2RN (DBA) from Dystar. This study was focused on the following aspects: optimization of experimental conditions through factorial design methodology, kinetic studies into a continuous stirred tank adsorber (at pH 7 and 20ºC), equilibrium isotherms (at pH 5, 7 and 9 at 20 and 45ºC) and column studies (at 20ºC, at pH 5, 7 and 9). In order to evaluate the influence of the presence of other components in the sorption of the dyestuff, all experiments were performed both for the dyestuff in aqueous solution and in real textile effluent. The pseudo-first and pseudo-second order kinetic models were fitted to the experimental data, being the latter the best fit for the aqueous solution of dyestuff. For the real effluent both models fit the experimental results and there is no statistical difference between them. The Central Composite Design (CCD) was used to evaluate the effects of temperature (15 - 45ºC) and pH (5 - 9) over the sorption in aqueous solution. The influence of pH was more significant than temperature. The optimal conditions selected were 45ºC and pH 9. Both Langmuir and Freundlich models could fit the equilibrium data. In the concentration range studied, the highest sorbent capacity was obtained for the optimal conditions in aqueous solution, which corresponds to a maximum capacity of 47± 4 mg g-1. The Yoon-Nelson, Thomas and Yan’s models fitted well the column experimental data. The highest breakthrough time for 50% removal, 170 min, was obtained at pH 9 in aqueous solution. The presence of the dyeing agents in the real wastewater decreased the sorption of the dyestuff mostly for pH 9, which is the optimal pH. The effect of pH is less pronounced in the real effluent than in aqueous solution. This work shows that feathers can be used as sorbent in the treatment of textile wastewaters containing DBA.

Extraction of ochratoxin A in bread samples by the QuEChERS methodology

A QuEChERS method for the extraction of ochratoxin A (OTA) from bread samples was evaluated. A factorial design (23) was used to find the optimal QuEChERS parameters (extraction time, extraction solvent volume and sample mass). Extracts were analysed by LC with fluorescence detection. The optimal extraction conditions were: 5 g of sample, 15 mL of acetonitrile and 3 min of agitation. The extraction procedure was validated by systematic recovery experiments at three levels. The recoveries obtained ranged from 94.8% (at 1.0 μg kg -1) to 96.6% (at 3.0 μg kg -1). The limit of quantification of the method was 0.05 μg kg -1. The optimised procedure was applied to 20 samples of different bread types (‘‘Carcaça’’, ‘‘Broa de Milho’’, and ‘‘Broa de Avintes’’) highly consumed in Portugal. None of the samples exceeded the established European legal limit of 3 μg kg -1.

Sustainable waste recycling solution for the glass fibre reinforced polymer composite materials industry

In this paper the adequacy and the benefit of incorporating glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) waste materials into polyester based mortars, as sand aggregates and filler replacements, are assessed. Different weight contents of mechanically recycled GFRP wastes with two particle size grades are included in the formulation of new materials. In all formulations, a polyester resin matrix was modified with a silane coupling agent in order to improve binder-aggregates interfaces. The added value of the recycling solution was assessed by means of both flexural and compressive strengths of GFRP admixed mortars with regard to those of the unmodified polymer mortars. Planning of experiments and data treatment were performed by means of full factorial design and through appropriate statistical tools based on analyses of variance (ANOVA). Results show that the partial replacement of sand aggregates by either type of GFRP recyclates improves the mechanical performance of resultant polymer mortars. In the case of trial formulations modified with the coarser waste mix, the best results are achieved with 8% waste weight content, while for fine waste based polymer mortars, 4% in weight of waste content leads to the higher increases on mechanical strengths. This study clearly identifies a promising waste management solution for GFRP waste materials by developing a cost-effective end-use application for the recyclates, thus contributing to a more sustainable fibre-reinforced polymer composites industry.

New recycling approaches for thermoset polymeric composite wastes – an experimental study on polyester based concrete materials filled with fibre reinforced plastic recyclates

In this study, a new waste management solution for thermoset glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) based products was assessed. Mechanical recycling approach, with reduction of GFRP waste to powdered and fibrous materials was applied, and the prospective added-value of obtained recyclates was experimentally investigated as raw material for polyester based mortars. Different GFRP waste admixed mortar formulations were analyzed varying the content, between 4% up to 12% in weight, of GFRP powder and fibre mix waste. The effect of incorporation of a silane coupling agent was also assessed. Design of experiments and data treatment was accomplished through implementation of full factorial design and analysis of variance ANOVA. Added value of potential recycling solution was assessed by means of flexural and compressive loading capacity of GFRP waste admixed mortars with regard to unmodified polymer mortars. The key findings of this study showed a viable technological option for improving the quality of polyester based mortars and highlight a potential cost-effective waste management solution for thermoset composite materials in the production of sustainable concrete-polymer based products.

Hybrid thermoset polymeric composites – an Innovation towards sustainability

In this study, a new waste management solution for thermoset glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) based products was assessed. Mechanical recycling approach, with reduction of GFRP waste to powdered and fibrous materials was applied, and the prospective added-value of obtained recyclates was experimentally investigated as raw material for polyester based mortars. Different GFRP waste admixed mortar formulations were analyzed varying the content, between 4% up to 12% in weight, of GFRP powder and fibre mix waste. The effect of incorporation of a silane coupling agent was also assessed. Design of experiments and data treatment was accomplished through implementation of full factorial design and analysis of variance ANOVA. Added value of potential recycling solution was assessed by means of flexural and compressive loading capacity of GFRP waste admixed mortars with regard to unmodified polymer mortars. The key findings of this study showed a viable technological option for improving the quality of polyester based mortars and highlight a potential cost-effective waste management solution for thermoset composite materials in the production of sustainable concrete-polymer based products.

New end-use application for GFRP recyclates as reinforcement for concrete-polymer materials’

Glass fibre-reinforced plastics (GFRP), nowadays commonly used in the construction, transportation and automobile sectors, have been considered inherently difficult to recycle due to both: cross-linked nature of thermoset resins, which cannot be remolded, and complex composition of the composite itself, which includes glass fibres, matrix and different types of inorganic fillers. Presently, most of the GFRP waste is landfilled leading to negative environmental impacts and supplementary added costs. With an increasing awareness of environmental matters and the subsequent desire to save resources, recycling would convert an expensive waste disposal into a profitable reusable material. There are several methods to recycle GFR thermostable materials: (a) incineration, with partial energy recovery due to the heat generated during organic part combustion; (b) thermal and/or chemical recycling, such as solvolysis, pyrolisis and similar thermal decomposition processes, with glass fibre recovering; and (c) mechanical recycling or size reduction, in which the material is subjected to a milling process in order to obtain a specific grain size that makes the material suitable as reinforcement in new formulations. This last method has important advantages over the previous ones: there is no atmospheric pollution by gas emission, a much simpler equipment is required as compared with ovens necessary for thermal recycling processes, and does not require the use of chemical solvents with subsequent environmental impacts. In this study the effect of incorporation of recycled GFRP waste materials, obtained by means of milling processes, on mechanical behavior of polyester polymer mortars was assessed. For this purpose, different contents of recycled GFRP waste materials, with distinct size gradings, were incorporated into polyester polymer mortars as sand aggregates and filler replacements. The effect of GFRP waste treatment with silane coupling agent was also assessed. Design of experiments and data treatment were accomplish by means of factorial design and analysis of variance ANOVA. The use of factorial experiment design, instead of the one-factor-at-a-time method is efficient at allowing the evaluation of the effects and possible interactions of the different material factors involved. Experimental results were promising toward the recyclability of GFRP waste materials as aggregates and filler replacements for polymer mortar, with significant gain of mechanical properties with regard to non-modified polymer mortars.

Otimização da extração sólido-líquido de antioxidantes de subprodutos florestais pelo método de superfície de resposta

Portugal continental apresenta uma vasta área florestal, que representa cerca de 35,4% da ocupação total do solo, com predominância de espécies como o eucalipto (Eucalyptus globulus) e o pinheiro-bravo (Pinus pinaster). Estas espécies apresentam uma elevada importância a nível económico, designadamente devido à sua ampla utilização, nomeadamente na indústria de celulose e papel, gerando elevadas quantidades de resíduos. Este resíduo de biomassa florestal é utilizado, na sua totalidade, para a geração de energia, na forma de eletricidade ou aquecimento. No entanto, existem outras opções viáveis, a nível económico, tais como a valorização destes subprodutos como fonte de compostos polifenólicos tornando-os, assim, um produto de valor acrescentado. A extração de compostos fenólicos de subprodutos florestais, como folhas de eucalipto e agulhas de pinheiros tem vindo a aumentar devido, principalmente, à substituição de antioxidantes sintéticos, contribuindo para a valorização de subprodutos florestais. Contudo, apesar de todas as potenciais aplicações e vantagens, apenas algumas centenas de espécies aromáticas identificadas são utilizadas à escala comercial. Neste trabalho foi avaliada a capacidade antioxidante de subprodutos da floresta, otimizando as condições de extração através do estudo dos fatores: tempo de extração, temperatura e composição de solvente através do método de superfície de resposta. O planeamento experimental utilizado teve como base um planeamento de compósito central e a avaliação do perfil de antioxidantes das matrizes analisadas foi realizada através de métodos de quantificação total, como o teor fenólico total, a atividade anti-radicalar – método do DPPH (radical 2,2-difenil-1-picrilhidrazilo) e o método de FRAP. Estes métodos analíticos convencionais foram modificados e, devidamente validados, para a análise em leitor de microplacas. Verificou-se que os extratos de pinheiro e de eucalipto, tanto as amostras verdes com as amostras, apresentam uma promissora capacidade antioxidante. O planeamento fatorial aplicado permitiu otimizar as condições de extração em relação às matrizes verdes. Contudo, o mesmo não se verificou em relação às matrizes secas. A composição (% de água) é sem dúvida o fator com mais efeito em todas as amostras (coeficientes de primeira e segunda ordem no modelo). Também a temperatura foi identificada como um fator com efeito significativo sobre os sistemas em análise.

Estudo do óxido de cálcio como catalisador para a transesterificação de óleos alimentares usados

O instável mas tendencialmente crescente preço dos combustíveis associado a preocupações ambientais cada vez mais enraizadas nas sociedades, têm vindo a despoletar uma maior atenção à procura de combustíveis alternativos. Por outro lado, várias projecções indicam um aumento muito acentuado do consumo energético global no curto prazo, fruto do aumento da população e do nível de industrialização das sociedades. Neste contexto, o biodiesel (ésteres de ácidos gordos) obtido através da transesterificação de triglicerídeos de origem vegetal ou animal, surge como a alternativa “verde” mais viável para utilização em equipamentos de combustão. A reacção de transesterificação é catalisada, por norma com recurso a catalisadores homogéneos alcalinos (NaOH ou KOH). Este tipo de processo, o único actualmente com expressão a nível industrial, apresenta algumas desvantagens que, para além de aumentarem o custo do produto final, contribuem para reduzir a benignidade do mesmo: a impossibilidade de reutilização do catalisador, o aumento do número e complexidade das etapas de separação e a produção de efluentes resultantes das referidas etapas. Com o intuito de minimizar ou eliminar estes problemas, vários catalisadores heterogéneos têm vindo a ser estudados para esta reacção. Apesar de muitos apresentarem resultados promissores, a grande maioria não tem viabilidade para aplicação industrial seja devido ao seu próprio custo, seja devido aos pré-tratamentos necessários à sua utilização. Entre estes catalisadores, o óxido de cálcio é talvez o que apresenta resultados mais promissores. O crescente número de estudos envolvendo este catalisador em detrimento de outros, é por si mesmo prova do potencial do CaO. A realização deste trabalho pretendia atingir os seguintes objectivos principais: • Avaliar a elegibilidade do óxido de cálcio enquanto catalisador da reacção de transesterificação de óleos alimentares usados com metanol; • Avaliar qual a sua influência nas características dos produtos finais; • Avaliar as diferenças de performance entre o óxido de cálcio activado em atmosfera inerte (N2) e em ar, enquanto catalisadores da reacção de transesterificação de óleos alimentares usados com metanol; • Optimizar as condições da reacção com recurso às ferramentas matemáticas disponibilizadas pelo planeamento factorial, através da variação de quatro factores chave de influência: temperatura, tempo, relação metanol / óleo e massa de catalisador utilizado. O CaO utlizado foi obtido a partir de carbonato de cálcio calcinado numa mufla a 750 °C durante 3 h. Foi posteriormente activado a 900 °C durante 2h, em atmosferas diferentes: azoto (CaO-N2) e ar (CaO-Ar). Avaliaram-se algumas propriedades dos catalisadores assim preparados, força básica, concentração de centros activos e áreas específicas, tendo-se obtido uma força básica situada entre 12 e 14 para ambos os catalisadores, uma concentração de centros activos de 0,0698 mmol/g e 0,0629 mmol/g e áreas específicas de 10 m2/g e 11 m2/g respectivamente para o CaO-N2 e CaO-Ar. Efectuou-se a transesterificação, com catálise homogénea, da mistura de óleos usados utilizada neste trabalho com o objectivo de determinar os limites para o teor de FAME’s (abreviatura do Inglês de Fatty Acid Methyl Esters’) que se poderiam obter. Foi este o parâmetro avaliado em cada uma das amostras obtidas por catálise heterogénea. Os planos factoriais realizados tiveram como objectivo maximizar a sua quantidade recorrendo à relação ideal entre tempo de reacção, temperatura, massa de catalisador e quantidade de metanol. Verificou-se que o valor máximo de FAME’s obtidos a partir deste óleo estava situado ligeiramente acima dos 95 % (m/m). Realizaram-se três planos factoriais com cada um dos catalisadores de CaO até à obtenção das condições óptimas para a reacção. Não se verificou influência significativa da relação entre a quantidade de metanol e a massa de óleo na gama de valores estudada, pelo que se fixou o valor deste factor em 35 ml de metanol / 85g de óleo (relação molar aproximada de 8:1). Verificou-se a elegibilidade do CaO enquanto catalisador para a reacção estudada, não se tendo observado diferenças significativas entre a performance do CaO-N2 e do CaO-Ar. Identificaram-se as condições óptimas para a reacção como sendo os valores de 59 °C para a temperatura, 3h para o tempo e 1,4 % de massa de catalisador relativamente à massa de óleo. Nas referidas condições, obtiveram-se produtos com um teor de FAME’s de 95,7 % na catálise com CaO-N2 e 95,3 % na catálise com CaO-Ar. Alguns autores de estudos consultados no desenvolvimento do presente trabalho, referiam como principal problema da utilização do CaO, a lixiviação de cálcio para os produtos obtidos. Este facto foi confirmado no presente trabalho e na tentativa de o contornar, tentou-se promover a carbonatação do cálcio com a passagem de ar comprimido através dos produtos e subsequente filtração. Após a realização deste tratamento, não mais se observaram alterações nas suas propriedades (aparecimento de turvação ou precipitados), no entanto, nos produtos obtidos nas condições óptimas, a concentração de cálcio determinada foi de 527 mg/kg no produto da reacção catalisada com CaO-N2 e 475 mg/kg com CaO-A. O óxido de cálcio apresentou-se como um excelente catalisador na transesterificação da mistura de óleos alimentares usados utilizada no presente trabalho, apresentando uma performance ao nível da obtida por catálise homogénea básica. Não se observaram diferenças significativas de performance entre o CaO-N2 e o CaO-Ar, sendo possível obter nas mesmas condições reaccionais produtos com teores de FAME’s superiores a 95 % utilizando qualquer um deles como catalisador. O elevado teor de cálcio lixiviado observado nos produtos, apresenta-se como o principal obstáculo à aplicação a nível industrial do óxido de cálcio como catalisador para a transesterificação de óleos.