Phytophagous insect fauna tracks host plant responses to exotic grass invasion

The high dependence of herbivorous insects on their host plants implies that plant invaders can affect these insects directly, by not providing a suitable habitat, or indirectly, by altering host plant availability. In this study, we sampled Asteraceae flower heads in cerrado remnants with varying levels of exotic grass invasion to evaluate whether invasive grasses have a direct effect on herbivore richness independent of the current disturbance level and host plant richness. By classifying herbivores according to the degree of host plant specialization, we also investigated whether invasive grasses reduce the uniqueness of the herbivorous assemblages. Herbivorous insect richness showed a unimodal relationship with invasive grass cover that was significantly explained only by way of the variation in host plant richness. The same result was found for polyphagous and oligophagous insects, but monophages showed a significant negative response to the intensity of the grass invasion that was independent of host plant richness. Our findings lend support to the hypothesis that the aggregate effect of invasive plants on herbivores tends to mirror the effects of invasive plants on host plants. In addition, exotic plants affect specialist insects differently from generalist insects; thus exotic plants affect not only the size but also the structural profile of herbivorous insect assemblages.

Spider-fed bromeliads: seasonal and interspecific variation in plant performance

Background and Aims Several animals that live on bromeliads can contribute to plant nutrition through nitrogen provisioning (digestive mutualism). The bromeliad-living spider Psecas chapoda (Salticidae) inhabits and breeds on Bromelia balansae in regions of South America, but in specific regions can also appear on Ananas comosus (pineapple) plantations and Aechmea distichantha. Methods Using isotopic and physiological methods in greenhouse experiments, the role of labelled ((15)N) spider faeces and Drosophila melanogaster flies in the nutrition and growth of each host plant was evaluated, as well as seasonal variation in the importance of this digestive mutualism. Key Results Spiders contributed 0.6 +/- 0.2% (mean +/- s.e.; dry season) to 2.7 +/- 1% (wet season) to the total nitrogen in B. balansae, 2.4 +/- 0.4% (dry) to 4.1 +/- 0.3% (wet) in An. comosus and 3.8 +/- 0.4% (dry) to 5 +/- 1% (wet) in Ae. distichantha. In contrast, flies did not contribute to the nutrition of these bromeliads. Chlorophylls and carotenoid concentrations did not differ among treatments. Plants that received faeces had higher soluble protein concentrations and leaf growth (RGR) only during the wet season. Conclusions These results indicate that the mutualism between spiders and bromeliads is seasonally restricted, generating a conditional outcome. There was interspecific variation in nutrient uptake, probably related to each species` performance and photosynthetic pathways. Whereas B. balansae seems to use nitrogen for growth, Ae. distichantha apparently stores nitrogen for stressful nutritional conditions. Bromeliads absorbed more nitrogen coming from spider faeces than from flies, reinforcing the beneficial role played by predators in these digestive mutualisms.

THE ENDOPARASITE PILOSTYLES ULEI (APODANTHACEAE - CUCURBITALES) INFLUENCES WOOD STRUCTURE IN THREE HOST SPECIES OF MIMOSA

Pilostyles species (Apodanthaceae) are endoparasites in stems of the plant family Fabaceae. The body comprises masses of parenchyma in the host bark and cortex, with sinkers, comprising groups of twisted tracheal elements surrounded by parenchyma that enter the secondary xylem of the host plant. Here we report for the first time the effects of Pilostyles parasitism on host secondary xylem. We obtained healthy and parasitized stems from Mimosa foliolosa, M. maguirei and M. setosa and compared vessel element length, fiber length, vessel diameter and vessel frequency, measured through digital imaging. Also, tree height and girth were compared between healthy and parasitized M. setosa. When parasitized, plant size, vessel diameter, vessel element length and fiber length are all less than in healthy plants. Also, vessel frequency is greater and vessels are narrower in parasitized stems. These responses to parasitism are similar to those observed in stressed plants. Thus, hosts respond to the parasite by changing its wood micromorphology in favour of increased hydraulic safety.

Nitrogen fluxes from treefrogs to tank epiphytic bromeliads: an isotopic and physiological approach

Diverse invertebrate and vertebrate species live in association with plants of the large Neotropical family Bromeliaceae. Although previous studies have assumed that debris of associated organisms improves plant nutrition, so far little evidence supports this assumption. In this study we used isotopic ((15)N) and physiological methods to investigate if the treefrog Scinax hayii, which uses the tank epiphytic bromeliad Vriesea bituminosa as a diurnal shelter, contributes to host plant nutrition. In the field, bromeliads with frogs had higher stable N isotopic composition (delta(15)N) values than those without frogs. Similar results were obtained from a controlled greenhouse experiment. Linear mixing models showed that frog feces and dead termites used to simulate insects that eventually fall inside the bromeliad tank contributed, respectively, 27.7% (+/- 0.07 SE) and 49.6% (+/- 0.50 SE) of the total N of V. bituminosa. Net photosynthetic rate was higher in plants that received feces and termites than in controls; however, this effect was only detected in the rainy, but not in the dry season. These results demonstrate for the first time that vertebrates contribute to bromeliad nutrition, and that this benefit is seasonally restricted. Since amphibian-bromeliad associations occur in diverse habitats in South and Central America, this mechanism for deriving nutrients may be important in bromeliad systems throughout the Neotropics.

Resource defense polygyny shifts to female defense polygyny over the course of the reproductive season of a Neotropical harvestman

Although studies classify the polygynous mating system of a given species into female defense polygyny (FDP) or resource defense polygyny (RDP), the boundary between these two categories is often slight. Males of some species may even shift between these two types of polygyny in response to temporal variation in social and environmental conditions. Here, we examine the mating system of the Neotropical harvestman Acutisoma proximum and, in order to assess if mate acquisition in males corresponds to FDP or RDP, we tested four contrasting predictions derived from the mating system theory. At the beginning of the reproductive season, males fight with other males for the possession of territories on the vegetation where females will later oviposit, as expected in RDP. Females present a marked preference for specific host plant species, and males establish their territories in areas where these host plants are specially abundant, which is also expected in RDP. Later in the reproductive season, males reduce their patrolling activity and focus on defending individual females that are ovipositing inside their territories, as what occurs in FDP. This is the first described case of an arachnid that exhibits a shift in mating system over the reproductive season, revealing that we should be cautious when defining the mating system of a species based on few observations concentrated in a brief period.

The defensive functions of plant inhibitors are not restricted to insect enzyme inhibition

Three plant proteinase inhibitors BbKI (kallikrein inhibitor) and BbCI (cruzipain inhibitor) from Bauhinia bouhinioides, and a BrTI (trypsin inhibitor) from B. rufa, were examined for other effects in Callosobruchus maculatus development; of these only BrTI affected bruchid emergence. BrTI and BbKI share 81% identities in their primary sequences and the major differences between them are the regions comprising the RGD and RGE motifs in BrTI. These sequences were shown to be essential for BrTI insecticidal activity, since a modified BbKI [that is a recombinant form (BbKIm) with some amino acid residues replaced by those found in BrTI sequence] also strongly inhibited insect development. By using synthetic peptides related to the BrTI sequence, YLEAPVARGDGGLA-NH(2) (RGE) and IVYYPDRGETGL-NH(2) (RGE), it was found that the peptide with an RGE sequence was able to block normal development of C. maculatus larvae (ED(50) 0.16% and LD(50) 0.09%), this being even more effective than the native protein. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

HOST-MEDIATED INDUCTION OF alpha-AMYLASES BY LARVAE OF THE MEXICAN BEAN WEEVIL Zabrotes subfasciatus (COLEOPTERA: CHRYSOMELIDAE: BRUCHINAE) IS IRREVERSIBLE AND OBSERVED FROM THE INITIATION OF THE FEEDING PERIOD

Larvae of Zabrotes subfasciatus secrete alpha-amylases that are insensitive to the alpha-amylase inhibitor found in seeds of Phaseolus vulgaris. By analyzing amylase activities during larval development on P. vulgaris, we detected activity of the constitutive amylase and the two inducible amylase isoforms at all stages. When larvae were transferred from the non alpha-amylase inhibitor containing seeds of Vigna unguiculata to P. vulgaris, the inducible alpha-amylases were expressed at the same level as in control larvae fed on P. vulgaris. Interestingly, when larvae were transferred from seeds of P. vulgaris to those of V. unguiculata, inducible alpha-amylases continued to be expressed at a level similar to that found in control larvae fed P. vulgaris continuously. When 10-day-old larvae were removed from seeds of V. unguiculata and transferred into capsules containing flour of P. vulgaris cotyledons, and thus maintained until completing 17 days ( age when the larvae stopped feeding), we could detect higher activity of the inducible alpha-amylases. However, when larvae of the same age were transferred from P. vulgaris into capsules containing flour of V. unguiculata, the inducible alpha-amylases remained up-regulated. These results suggest that the larvae of Z. subfasciatus have the ability to induce insensitive amylases early in their development. A short period of feeding on P. vulgaris cotyledon flour was sufficient to irreversibly induce the inducible alpha-amylase isoforms. Incubations of brush border membrane vesicles with the alpha-amylase inhibitor 1 from P. vulgaris suggest that the inhibitor is recognized by putative receptors found in the midgut microvillar membranes. (C) 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Subsite substrate specificity of midgut insect chymotrypsins

Insect chymotrypsins are distinctively sensitive to plant protein inhibitors, suggesting that they differ in subsite architecture and hence in substrate specificities. Purified digestive chymotrypsins from insects of three different orders were assayed with internally quenched fluorescent oligopeptides with three different amino acids at P1 (Tyr, Phe, and Leu) and 13 amino acid replacements in positions P1`, P2, and P3. The binding energy (Delta G(s), calculated from Km values) and the activation energy (Delta G(T)(double dagger), determined from k(cat)/K-m values) were calculated. The hydrophobicities of each subsite were calculated from the efficiency of hydrolysis of the different amino acid replacements at that subsite. The results showed that except for S1, the other subsites (S2, S3, and S1`) vary among chymotrypsins. This result contrasts with insect trypsin data that revealed a trend along evolution, putatively associated with resistance to plant inhibitors. In spite of those differences, the data suggested that in lepidopteran chymotrypsins S2 and S1` bind the substrate ground state, whereas only S1` binds the transition state, supporting aspects of the present accepted mechanism of catalysis. 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Effects of the antimicrobial peptide gomesin on the global gene expression profile, virulence and biofilm formation of Xylella fastidiosa

In the xylem vessels of susceptible hosts, such as citrus trees, Xylella fastidiosa forms biofilm-like colonies that can block water transport, which appears to correlate to disease symptoms. Besides aiding host colonization, bacterial biofilms play an important role in resistance against antimicrobial agents, for instance antimicrobial peptides (AMPs). Here, we show that gomesin, a potent AMP from a tarantula spider, modulates X. fastidiosa gene expression profile upon 60 min of treatment with a sublethal concentration. DNA microarray hybridizations revealed that among the upregulated coding sequences, some are related to biofilm production. In addition, we show that the biofilm formed by gomesin-treated bacteria is thicker than that formed by nontreated cells or cells exposed to streptomycin. We have also observed that the treatment of X. fastidiosa with a sublethal concentration of gomesin before inoculation in tobacco plants correlates with a reduction in foliar symptoms, an effect possibly due to the trapping of bacterial cells to fewer xylem vessels, given the enhancement in biofilm production. These results warrant further investigation of how X. fastidiosa would respond to the AMPs produced by citrus endophytes and by the insect vector, leading to a better understanding of the mechanism of action of these molecules on bacterial virulence.

First evidence of insect attraction by a Southern Hemisphere Splachnaceae: The case of Tayloria dubyi Broth. in the Reserve Biosphere Cape Horn, Chile

The moss Tayloria dubyi (Splachnaceae) is endemic to the subantarctic Magallanes ecoregion where it grows exclusively on bird dung and perhaps only on feces of the goose Chloephaga picta, a unique habitat among Splachnaceae. Some species of Splachnaceae from the Northern Hemisphere are known to recruit coprophilous flies as a vector to disperse their spores by releasing intense odors mimicking fresh clung or decaying corpses. The flies land on the capsule, and may get in contact with the protruding mass of spores that stick to the insect body. The dispersal strategy relies on the spores falling off when the insect reaches fresh droppings or carrion. Germination is thought to be rapid and a new population is quickly established over the entire substrate. The objectives of this investigation were to determine whether the coprophilous T. dubyi attracts flies and to assess the taxonomic diversity of the flies visiting this moss. For this, fly traps were set up above mature sporophyte bearing populations in two peatlands on Navarino Island. We captured 64 flies belonging to the Muscidae (Palpibracus chilensis), Tachinidae (Dasyuromyia sp) and Sarcophagidae (not identified to species) above sporophytes of T. dubyi, whereas no flies were captured in control traps set up above Sphagnum mats nearby.

Complexity and anisotropy in host morphology make populations less susceptible to epidemic outbreaks

One of the challenges in epidemiology is to account for the complex morphological structure of hosts such as plant roots, crop fields, farms, cells, animal habitats and social networks, when the transmission of infection occurs between contiguous hosts. Morphological complexity brings an inherent heterogeneity in populations and affects the dynamics of pathogen spread in such systems. We have analysed the influence of realistically complex host morphology on the threshold for invasion and epidemic outbreak in an SIR (susceptible-infected-recovered) epidemiological model. We show that disorder expressed in the host morphology and anisotropy reduces the probability of epidemic outbreak and thus makes the system more resistant to epidemic outbreaks. We obtain general analytical estimates for minimally safe bounds for an invasion threshold and then illustrate their validity by considering an example of host data for branching hosts (salamander retinal ganglion cells). Several spatial arrangements of hosts with different degrees of heterogeneity have been considered in order to separately analyse the role of shape complexity and anisotropy in the host population. The estimates for invasion threshold are linked to morphological characteristics of the hosts that can be used for determining the threshold for invasion in practical applications.

Digestive physiology and characterization of digestive cathepsin L-like proteinase from the sugarcane weevil Sphenophorus levis

Sugarcane is an important crop that has recently become subject to attacks from the weevil Sphenophorus levis, which is not efficiently controlled with chemical insecticides. This demands the development of new control devices for which digestive physiology data are needed. In the present study, ion-exchange chromatography of S. levis whole midgut homogenates, together with enzyme assays with natural and synthetic substrates and specific inhibitors, demonstrated that a cysteine proteinase is a major proteinase, trypsin is a minor one and chymotrypsin is probably negligible. Amylase, maltase and the cysteine proteinase occur in the gut contents and decrease throughout the midgut; trypsin is constant in the entire midgut, whereas a membrane-bound aminopeptidase predominates in the posterior midgut. The cysteine proteinase was purified to homogeneity through ion-exchange chromatography. The purified enzyme had a mass of 37 kDa and was able to hydrolyze Z-Phe-Arg-MCA and Z-Leu-Arg-MCA with k(cat)/K(m) values of 20.0 +/- 1.1 mu M(-1) s(-1) and 30.0 +/- 0.5 mu M(-1) s(-1), respectively, but not Z-Arg-Arg-MCA. The combined results suggest that protein digestion starts in the anterior midgut under the action of a cathepsin L-like proteinase and ends on the surface of posterior midgut cells. All starch digestion takes place in anterior midgut. These data will be instrumental to developing S. levis-resistant sugarcane. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Oroidin Inhibits the Activity of the Multidrug Resistance Target Pdr5p from Yeast Plasma Membranes

Oroidin was isolated from the marine sponge Agelas sventres and inhibited the activity and function of Pdr5p, an enzyme responsible for the multidrug resistance phenotype in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This compound may help in the development of new drugs that reverse this dangerous phenotype of pathogenic yeast and fungi.