Urban environmental degradation and the standard of living: the case of the Spanish mining industry (1870–1930)

This paper analyses the consequences of urban environmental degradation on the well-being of Spanish miners. It is based on analyses of differences in mortality and height. The first part of the paper examines new hypotheses regarding the urban penalty. We take into consideration existing works in economic theory that address market failures when analysing the higher urban death rate. We explain the reduction in height using the model recently created by Floud, Fogel, Harris and Hong for British cities. The second part of the paper presents information demonstrating that the urban areas in the two largest mining areas in Spain (Bilbao and the Cartagena-La Unión mountain range) experienced a higher death rate relative to rural areas as a consequence of market failures derived from what we term an ‘anarchic urbanisation’.

El problema sanitario de España: saneamiento y medio rural en los primeros decenios del siglo XX

En los primeros decenios del siglo XX, la situación socio-sanitaria de la sociedad española fue descrita como catastrófica, tanto en el ámbito urbano como en el rural. En aquel contexto, el saneamiento del medio aparece como una de las claves del proceso de regeneración que asumió la higiene en su papel de mediadora. A través de las obras de los higienistas G. De Membrillera y Luis Muñoz Antuñano, publicadas en 1921, nos hemos acercado al análisis de la situación sanitaria de la España rural durante este periodo.

Trends in socioeconomic inequalities in amenable mortality in urban areas of Spanish cities, 1996-2007

Background: While research continues into indicators such as preventable and amenable mortality in order to evaluate quality, access, and equity in the healthcare, it is also necessary to continue identifying the areas of greatest risk owing to these causes of death in urban areas of large cities, where a large part of the population is concentrated, in order to carry out specific actions and reduce inequalities in mortality. This study describes inequalities in amenable mortality in relation to socioeconomic status in small urban areas, and analyses their evolution over the course of the periods 1996–99, 2000–2003 and 2004–2007 in three major cities in the Spanish Mediterranean coast (Alicante, Castellón, and Valencia). Methods: All deaths attributed to amenable causes were analysed among non-institutionalised residents in the three cities studied over the course of the study periods. Census tracts for the cities were grouped into 3 socioeconomic status levels, from higher to lower levels of deprivation, using 5 indicators obtained from the 2001 Spanish Population Census. For each city, the relative risks of death were estimated between socioeconomic status levels using Poisson’s Regression models, adjusted for age and study period, and distinguishing between genders. Results: Amenable mortality contributes significantly to general mortality (around 10%, higher among men), having decreased over time in the three cities studied for men and women. In the three cities studied, with a high degree of consistency, it has been seen that the risks of mortality are greater in areas of higher deprivation, and that these excesses have not significantly modified over time. Conclusions: Although amenable mortality decreases over the time period studied, the socioeconomic inequalities observed are maintained in the three cities. Areas have been identified that display excesses in amenable mortality, potentially attributable to differences in the healthcare system, associated with areas of greater deprivation. Action must be taken in these areas of greater inequality in order to reduce the health inequalities detected. The causes behind socioeconomic inequalities in amenable mortality must be studied in depth.

Trends in socioeconomic inequalities in preventable mortality in urban areas of 33 Spanish cities, 1996–2007 (MEDEA project)

Background: Preventable mortality is a good indicator of possible problems to be investigated in the primary prevention chain, making it also a useful tool with which to evaluate health policies particularly public health policies. This study describes inequalities in preventable avoidable mortality in relation to socioeconomic status in small urban areas of thirty three Spanish cities, and analyses their evolution over the course of the periods 1996–2001 and 2002–2007. Methods: We analysed census tracts and all deaths occurring in the population residing in these cities from 1996 to 2007 were taken into account. The causes included in the study were lung cancer, cirrhosis, AIDS/HIV, motor vehicle traffic accidents injuries, suicide and homicide. The census tracts were classified into three groups, according their socioeconomic level. To analyse inequalities in mortality risks between the highest and lowest socioeconomic levels and over different periods, for each city and separating by sex, Poisson regression were used. Results: Preventable avoidable mortality made a significant contribution to general mortality (around 7.5%, higher among men), having decreased over time in men (12.7 in 1996–2001 and 10.9 in 2002–2007), though not so clearly among women (3.3% in 1996–2001 and 2.9% in 2002–2007). It has been observed in men that the risks of death are higher in areas of greater deprivation, and that these excesses have not modified over time. The result in women is different and differences in mortality risks by socioeconomic level could not be established in many cities. Conclusions: Preventable mortality decreased between the 1996–2001 and 2002–2007 periods, more markedly in men than in women. There were socioeconomic inequalities in mortality in most cities analysed, associating a higher risk of death with higher levels of deprivation. Inequalities have remained over the two periods analysed. This study makes it possible to identify those areas where excess preventable mortality was associated with more deprived zones. It is in these deprived zones where actions to reduce and monitor health inequalities should be put into place. Primary healthcare may play an important role in this process.

La expansión del área urbana de Segovia. Transformación paisajística del entorno rural periurbano

En la última década, el área urbana de Segovia ha experimentado un profundo cambio radicado en la urbanización de municipios del entorno rural periurbano. Los crecimientos más significativos se han dado en los núcleos situados en torno al eje de la carretera CL-601 que une Segovia con el Real Sitio de San Ildefonso. La expansión del área urbanizada en este espacio genera cambios en la dinámica territorial que pueden llegar a producir desajustes funcionales que afecten negativamente a los valores patrimoniales y paisajísticos que definen a este territorio.

Urban penalty: nuevas hipótesis y caso español (1860-1920)

El término urban penalty fue en principio utilizado para definir la sobremortalidad urbana durante la revolución industrial. Los antropómetras lo emplearon más tarde para definir un hecho simultáneo: el descenso de la estatura urbana con respecto a la rural. En la primera parte del trabajo proponemos tres nuevas hipótesis sobre ese castigo urbano: a) incorporar las aportaciones de la Teoría Económica sobre fallos de mercado al análisis de la sobremortalidad urbana; b) explicar la urban penalty mediante el modelo que Floud, Fogel, Harris y Chul Hong han elaborado recientemente para Gran Bretaña y c) sugerir respuestas a una pregunta que debe ser avalada o desmentida por investigaciones de ámbito municipal: ¿por qué los políticos españoles de la restauración tardaron décadas en acometer la reforma sanitaria de las ciudades? En la segunda parte del trabajo ofrecemos información que demuestra que España padeció sobremortalidad urbana derivada de fallos de mercado. Los datos de estatura rural y urbana evidencian por el contrario que, salvo excepciones, el país no experimentó urban penalty. El trabajo termina tratando de explicar esta particularidad y sosteniendo que el modelo de Floud, Fogel, Harris y Chul Hong puede aplicarse a esas excepciones.

Política pública en el desarrollo de la juventud rural

La política pública es fundamental para cumplir con el propósito de atender los problemas colectivos a través de la negociación colectiva. En el medio rural se expresa en toda su amplitud, como agenda de formulación, de ejecución y de evaluación ajena a los actores municipales. De esta forma, este artículo tiene como objetivo comprobar los procesos, condiciones y efectos que genera en la población que las recibe, las acepta y se adapta a ellas. Desde el enfoque territorial, se encontró que la política pública y algunos programas dirigidos a los jóvenes, se centran en la juventud urbana; mientras que los jóvenes rurales desconocen las políticas públicas y los programas que son creados o aplicados a ellos. Las instancias de gobierno municipal, registran una falta de atención a los jóvenes, por la escases de estructura administrativa y de recursos económicos, que profundizan la ausencia de coordinación y comunicación entre los tres niveles de gobierno y la sociedad civil; causando que la duplicidad de programas con recursos limitados e insuficientes se sumen a los demás factores que limitan la atención de los jóvenes de la Sierra Norte de Puebla.