Income taxation of emigrants and immigrants under Spanish law

Análisis de las consecuencias tributarias de los cambios de residencia de las personas físicas.

From the boom to the crisis: changes in employment conditions of immigrants in Spain and their effects on mental health

Background: Migrant workers have been one of the groups most affected by the economic crisis. This study evaluates the influence of changes in employment conditions on the incidence of poor mental health of immigrant workers in Spain, after a period of 3 years, in context of economic crisis. Methods: Follow-up survey was conducted at two time points, 2008 and 2011, with a reference population of 318 workers from Colombia, Ecuador, Morocco and Romania residing in Spain. Individuals from this population who reported good mental health in the 2008 survey (n = 214) were interviewed again in 2011 to evaluate their mental health status and the effects of their different employment situations since 2008 by calculating crude and adjusted odds ratios (aORs) for sociodemographic and employment characteristics. Findings: There was an increased risk of poor mental health in workers who lost their jobs (aOR = 3.62, 95%CI: 1.64–7.96), whose number of working hours increased (aOR = 2.35, 95%CI: 1.02–5.44), whose monthly income decreased (aOR = 2.75, 95%CI: 1.08–7.00) or who remained within the low-income bracket. This was also the case for people whose legal status (permission for working and residing in Spain) was temporary or permanent compared with those with Spanish nationality (aOR = 3.32, 95%CI: 1.15–9.58) or illegal (aOR = 17.34, 95%CI: 1.96–153.23). In contrast, a decreased risk was observed among those who attained their registration under Spanish Social Security system (aOR = 0.10, 95%CI: 0.02–0.48). Conclusion: There was an increase in poor mental health among immigrant workers who experienced deterioration in their employment conditions, probably influenced by the economic crisis.

Health inequality between immigrants and natives in Spain: the loss of the healthy immigrant effect in times of economic crisis

Background: The immigrant population living in Spain grew exponentially in the early 2000s but has been particularly affected by the economic crisis. This study aims to analyse health inequalities between immigrants born in middle- or low-income countries and natives in Spain, in 2006 and 2012, taking into account gender, year of arrival and socioeconomic exposures. Methods: Study of trends using two cross-sections, the 2006 and 2012 editions of the Spanish National Health Survey, including residents in Spain aged 15–64 years (20 810 natives and 2950 immigrants in 2006, 14 291 natives and 2448 immigrants in 2012). Fair/poor self-rated health, poor mental health (GHQ-12 > 2), chronic activity limitation and use of psychotropic drugs were compared between natives and immigrants who arrived in Spain before 2006, adjusting robust Poisson regression models for age and socioeconomic variables to obtain prevalence ratios (PR) and 95% confidence interval (CI). Results: Inequalities in poor self-rated health between immigrants and natives tend to increase among women (age-adjusted PR2006 = 1.39; 95% CI: 1.24–1.56, PR2012 = 1.56; 95% CI: 1.33–1.82). Among men, there is a new onset of inequalities in poor mental health (PR2006 = 1.10; 95% CI: 0.86–1.40, PR2012 = 1.34; 95% CI: 1.06–1.69) and an equalization of the previously lower use of psychotropic drugs (PR2006 = 0.22; 95% CI: 0.11–0.43, PR2012 = 1.20; 95% CI: 0.73–2.01). Conclusions: Between 2006 and 2012, immigrants who arrived in Spain before 2006 appeared to worsen their health status when compared with natives. The loss of the healthy immigrant effect in the context of a worse impact of the economic crisis on immigrants appears as potential explanation. Employment, social protection and re-universalization of healthcare would prevent further deterioration of immigrants’ health status.

The Impact of Education and Socioeconomic and Occupational Conditions on Self-Perceived and Mental Health Inequalities Among Immigrants and Native Workers in Spain

There is limited evidence on the influence of social determinants on the self-perceived and mental health of immigrants settled at least 8 years in Spain. The aim of this study was to examine differences between workers related to migrant-status, self-perceived and mental health, and to assess their relationship to occupational conditions, educational level and occupational social class, stratified by sex. Using data from the Spanish National Health Survey of 2011/12, we computed prevalence, odds ratios and explicative fractions. Mental (OR 2.02; CI 1.39–2.93) and self-perceived health (OR 2.64; CI 1.77–3.93) were poorer for immigrant women compared to natives. Occupational social class variable contributes 25 % to self-perceived health OR in immigrant women. Settled immigrant women workers are a vulnerable group in Spain.

Identifying sociodemographic differences in Intimate Partner Violence among immigrant and native women in Spain: a cross-sectional study

Objectives: To analyze whether sociodemographics and social support have a different or similar effect on the likelihood of Intimate Partner Violence in immigrants and natives, and to estimate prevalences and associations between different types of IPV depending on women's birthplace. Methods: Cross-sectional study of 10,048 women (18–70 years) attending primary healthcare in Spain (2006–2007). Outcome: Current Intimate Partner Violence (psychological, physical and both). Sociodemographics and social support were considered first as explicative and later as control variables. Results: Similar Intimate Partner Violence sociodemographic and social support factors were observed among immigrants and natives. However, these associations were stronger among immigrants, except in the case of poor social support (adjusted odds ratio natives 4.36 and adjusted odds ratio immigrants 4.09). When these two groups were compared, immigrants showed a higher likelihood of IPV than natives (adjusted odds ratios 1.58). Conclusion: Immigrant women are in a disadvantaged Intimate Partner Violence situation. It is necessary that interventions take these inequalities into account.

Relación en España de la duración de la gestación y del peso al nacer con la nacionalidad de la madre durante el período 2001-2005

Fundamento: La asociación de la inmigración con el bajo peso al nacimiento (BP) y el parto pretérmino (PP) es un importante indicador de inequidades en salud. El objetivo de este estudio es analizar las diferencias entre BP y el PP según la nacionalidad de la madre. Métodos: Los datos proceden del Boletín Estadístico de Nacimientos. Durante el período de estudio hubo 1.878.718 recién nacidos. La nacionalidad fue considerada como variable de exposición (española-inmigrante). Las variables de efecto son BP (nacimientos de 37 o más semanas de gestación con un peso inferior a 2.500 gramos) y PP (recién nacidos con menos de 37 semanas de gestación). Se calcularon odds ratios simples y ajustadas por posibles variables de confusión mediante regresión logística. Resultados: La prevalencia de BP y PP entre las mujeres españolas fue de 7,9% y 3,2% respectivamente, mientras que en las extranjeras fue de 7,3% y 2,4% respectivamente. En comparación con las españolas, el riesgo más bajo de PP lo presentaron las mujeres procedentes de África del Norte (ORa= 0,77 IC95%0,74-0,80). Con respecto al BP el riesgo más bajo se observó en madres de Sudamérica (ORa=0,62 IC95%0,59-0,65) y Europa del Este (ORa=0,65 IC95%0,60-0,71). Conclusión: Los recién nacidos de madre extranjera presentan menos riesgo de BP y PP que los autóctonos, posiblemente como consecuencia del sesgo por la condición de ser inmigrante sano y por la menor frecuencia de prácticas de riesgo durante la gestación de las mujeres inmigrantes.

Diferencias obstétricas y neonatales entre mujeres autóctonas e inmigrantes

Objetivo: Identificar el perfil epidemiológico obstétrico y neonatal de las gestantes inmigrantes que parieron en el Hospital de Albacete durante los años 2004 y 2005. Material y métodos: Estudio descriptivo realizado en 1.322 mujeres, 661 inmigrantes y 661 autóctonas. Se seleccionaron variables sociodemográficas, obstétricas y neonatales para ambos colectivos. Se practicó un análisis multivariante para aislar el efecto neto de ser inmigrante en los resultados obstétricos y neonatales. Resultados: El número de partos en inmigrantes se incrementó un 29,5% y supusieron un 12,2% del total de mujeres. No presentan partos de mayor riesgo que las autóctonas. A diferencia de las autóctonas, son más jóvenes y multíparas, y utilizan menos la epidural. Conclusiones: El perfil epidemiológico de los resultados obstétricos y neonatales en inmigrantes es similar al de las autóctonas. El tipo de parto y el ingreso en pediatría no están condicionados por la nacionalidad. Ser joven y multípara son los principales factores de protección.

Los límites entre el turismo y la migración residencial: una tipología

En los procesos de movilidad internacional de jubilados desde el norte de Europa hasta las costas mediterráneas, se reconocen nuevos estilos de vida relacionados con fenómenos de naturaleza en ocasiones turística y a veces migratoria. Las sociedades que acogen a esta población requieren la definición de criterios para categorizar a estas personas como turistas o inmigrantes, pues la financiación y la gestión de sus recursos depende de ello. En este trabajo, se construye una tipología creada a partir de una encuesta realizada a 872 ciudadanos europeos en la provincia de Alicante. El empadronamiento y la forma de tenencia de la vivienda ocupada se revelan como las variables explicativas de la relación existente entre el turismo de larga estancia y la migración residencial.

Reemigrar en España: una aproximación a sus determinantes

En este trabajo se investiga sobre las razones que inducen a los migrantes a realizar migraciones múltiples. Tras el análisis descriptivo de las características de estos inmigrantes, se especifica un logit binomial y un probit multinomial en los que la probabilidad de volver a emigrar depende de las características personales y de las cadenas migratorias de orígenes y destinos. La información utilizada procede de los microdatos de la Estadística de Variaciones Residenciales. Los resultados indican que las migraciones repetidas de españoles y extranjeros responden a motivos diferentes. El análisis sugiere que las reemigraciones de los extranjeros obedecerían a los resultados de sus experiencias laborales, mientras que en las de los españoles parecen hallarse otros motivos adicionales.

La participación política de los residentes británicos y alemanes en España: el caso de San Miguel de Salinas, Alicante

Este estudio se fija en los ciudadanos noreuropeos asentados en la provincia mediterránea de Alicante que tienen un estatus más cercano al de un inmigrante que al de un turista. La importancia que ha cobrado esta corriente inmigratoria ha provocado cambios profundos en muchos municipios. El objetivo es estudiar el papel político de estos ciudadanos en aquellas regiones en las que su presencia es más significativa. El análisis se basa en datos demográficos y de participación en las elecciones municipales de 2011 y en un trabajo cualitativo que ahonda en la comprensión de los procesos informales de participación política. El hecho de que la influencia de los residentes noreuropeos en las instituciones políticas locales no haya crecido al mismo ritmo que su peso demográfico se debe tanto al desinterés de los extranjeros por participar en la vida pública como al interés de las élites políticas por desincentivar dicha participación.

Etnocentrismo, xenofobia y migraciones internacionales en una perspectiva comparada

Mediante un análisis comparado de 15 países, tanto desarrollados como en vías de desarrollo y empleando encuestas de opinión pública, se contrastan varias hipótesis relacionales entre etnocentrismo y xenofobia. Los resultados establecen al etnocentrismo como un elemento común a las sociedades analizadas, de forma que los núcleos de opinión etnocéntrica se encuentran tanto en los países emisores de emigración como en las sociedades receptoras. Asimismo, se comprueba la estrecha vinculación entre etnocentrismo y xenofobia, así como que en las sociedades con mayor grado de multiculturalidad de origen inmigratorio son más probables las actitudes xenófobas de origen etnocéntrico. Las conclusiones señalan que esta xenofobia, si bien se activa contextualmente (experiencia de inmigración multicultural), tiene sus raíces emocionales en los prejuicios etnocéntricos, indistintamente de posibles experiencias negativas con los inmigrantes.

La emigración cualificada española en Francia y Alemania

A pesar del interés que despierta el fenómeno de las migraciones cualificadas, es difícil encontrar datos que permitan realizar un análisis detallado de los factores que condicionan la movilidad. El caso español constituye un ejemplo de la modificación cualitativa en la composición de las migraciones de sur a norte en Europa tras el ingreso en la Comunidad Económica Europea. No se produjeron migraciones masivas de trabajadores sin cualificación; sin embargo, sí se alteró drásticamente su composición: la migración no cualificada fue sustituida por migración cualificada de España a Alemania y Francia. Esta migración queda ocultada por la llegada masiva de inmigrantes a España. Empleando los datos de la encuesta EIMSS, se analizan las diferencias de las condiciones de egreso y movilidad entre los dos tipos de migrantes, cualificados y no cualificados.

Work-related health problems among resident immigrant workers in Italy and Spain

Background: in both Spain and Italy the number of immigrants has strongly increased in the last 20 years, currently representing more than the 10% of workforce in each country. The segregation of immigrants into unskilled or risky jobs brings negative consequences for their health. The objective of this study is to compare prevalence of work-related health problems between immigrants and native workers in Italy and Spain. Methods: data come from the Italian Labour Force Survey (n=65 779) and Spanish Working Conditions Survey (n=11 019), both conducted in 2007. We analyzed merged datasets to evaluate whether interviewees, both natives and migrants, judge their health being affected by their work conditions and, if so, which specific diseases. For migrants, we considered those coming from countries with a value of the Human Development Index lower than 0.85. Logistic regression models were used, including gender, age, and education as adjusting factors. Results: migrants reported skin diseases (Mantel-Haenszel pooled OR=1.49; 95%CI: 0.59-3.74) and musculoskeletal problems among those employed in agricultural sector (Mantel-Haenszel pooled OR=1.16; 95%CI: 0.69-1.96) more frequently than natives; country-specific analysis showed higher risks of musculoskeletal problems among migrants compared to the non-migrant population in Italy (OR=1.17; 95% CI: 0.48-1.59) and of respiratory problems in Spain (OR=2.02; 95%CI: 1.02-4.0). In both countries the risk of psychological stress was predominant among national workers. Conclusions: this collaborative study allows to strength the evidence concerning the health of migrant workers in Southern European countries.

A metasynthesis of qualitative studies regarding opinions and perceptions about barriers and determinants of health services’ accessibility in economic migrants

Background: Access to health services is an important health determinant. New research in health equity is required, especially amongst economic migrants from developing countries. Studies conducted on the use of health services by migrant populations highlight existing gaps in understanding which factors affect access to these services from a qualitative perspective. We aim to describe the views of the migrants regarding barriers and determinants of access to health services in the international literature (1997–2011). Methods: A systematic review was conducted for Qualitative research papers (English/Spanish) published in 13 electronic databases. A selection of articles that accomplished the inclusion criteria and a quality evaluation of the studies were carried out. The findings of the selected studies were synthesised by means of metasynthesis using different analysis categories according to Andersen’s conceptual framework of access and use of health services and by incorporating other emergent categories. Results: We located 3,025 titles, 36 studies achieved the inclusion criteria. After quality evaluation, 28 articles were definitively synthesised. 12 studies (46.2%) were carried out in the U.S and 11 studies (42.3%) dealt with primary care services. The participating population varied depending mainly on type of host country. Barriers were described, such as the lack of communication between health services providers and migrants, due to idiomatic difficulties and cultural differences. Other barriers were linked to the economic system, the health service characteristics and the legislation in each country. This situation has consequences for the lack of health control by migrants and their social vulnerability. Conclusions: Economic migrants faced individual and structural barriers to the health services in host countries, especially those with undocumented situation and those experimented idiomatic difficulties. Strategies to improve the structures of health systems and social policies are needed.

Social determinants of self-perceived discrimination in Spain

Objectives: To analyse the association between self-perceived discrimination and social determinants (social class, gender, country of origin) in Spain, and further to describe contextual factors which contribute to self-perceived discrimination. Methods: Cross-sectional design using data from the Spanish National Health Survey (2006). The dependent variable was self-perceived discrimination, and independent and stratifying variables were sociodemographic characteristics (e.g. sex, social class, country of origin, educational level). Logistic regression was used. Results: The prevalence of self-perceived discrimination was 4.2% for men and 6.3% for women. The likelihood of self-perceived discrimination was higher in people who originated from low-income countries: men, odds ratio (OR) 5.59 [95% confidence interval (CI) 4.55–6.87]; women, OR 4.06 (95% CI 3.42–4.83). Women were more likely to report self-perceived discrimination by their partner at home than men [OR 8.35 (95% CI 4.70–14.84)]. The likelihood of self-perceived discrimination when seeking work was higher among people who originated from low-income countries than their Spanish counterparts: men, OR 13.65 (95% CI 9.62–19.35); women, OR 10.64 (95% CI 8.31–13.62). In comparison with Spaniards, male white-collar workers who originated from low-income countries [OR 11.93 (95% CI 8.26–17.23)] and female blue-collar workers who originated from low-income countries (OR 1.6 (95% CI 1.08–2.39)] reported higher levels of self-perceived discrimination. Conclusions: Self-perceived discrimination is distributed unevenly in Spain and interacts with social inequalities. This particularly affects women and immigrants.