Clinopyroxene based glasses and glass-ceramics for functional applications

As piroxenas são um vasto grupo de silicatos minerais encontrados em muitas rochas ígneas e metamórficas. Na sua forma mais simples, estes silicatos são constituídas por cadeias de SiO3 ligando grupos tetrahédricos de SiO4. A fórmula química geral das piroxenas é M2M1T2O6, onde M2 se refere a catiões geralmente em uma coordenação octaédrica distorcida (Mg2+, Fe2+, Mn2+, Li+, Ca2+, Na+), M1 refere-se a catiões numa coordenação octaédrica regular (Al3+, Fe3+, Ti4+, Cr3+, V3+, Ti3+, Zr4+, Sc3+, Zn2+, Mg2+, Fe2+, Mn2+), e T a catiões em coordenação tetrahédrica (Si4+, Al3+, Fe3+). As piroxenas com estrutura monoclínica são designadas de clinopiroxenes. A estabilidade das clinopyroxenes num espectro de composições químicas amplo, em conjugação com a possibilidade de ajustar as suas propriedades físicas e químicas e a durabilidade química, têm gerado um interesse mundial devido a suas aplicações em ciência e tecnologia de materiais. Este trabalho trata do desenvolvimento de vidros e de vitro-cerâmicos baseadas de clinopiroxenas para aplicações funcionais. O estudo teve objectivos científicos e tecnológicos; nomeadamente, adquirir conhecimentos fundamentais sobre a formação de fases cristalinas e soluções sólidas em determinados sistemas vitro-cerâmicos, e avaliar a viabilidade de aplicação dos novos materiais em diferentes áreas tecnológicas, com especial ênfase sobre a selagem em células de combustível de óxido sólido (SOFC). Com este intuito, prepararam-se vários vidros e materiais vitro-cerâmicos ao longo das juntas Enstatite (MgSiO3) - diopsídio (CaMgSi2O6) e diopsídio (CaMgSi2O6) - Ca - Tschermak (CaAlSi2O6), os quais foram caracterizados através de um vasto leque de técnicas. Todos os vidros foram preparados por fusão-arrefecimento enquanto os vitro-cerâmicos foram obtidos quer por sinterização e cristalização de fritas, quer por nucleação e cristalização de vidros monolíticos. Estudaram-se ainda os efeitos de várias substituições iónicas em composições de diopsídio contendo Al na estrutura, sinterização e no comportamento durante a cristalização de vidros e nas propriedades dos materiais vitro-cerâmicos, com relevância para a sua aplicação como selantes em SOFC. Verificou-se que Foi observado que os vidros/vitro-cerâmicos à base de enstatite não apresentavam as características necessárias para serem usados como materiais selantes em SOFC, enquanto as melhores propriedades apresentadas pelos vitro-cerâmicos à base de diopsídio qualificaram-nos para futuros estudos neste tipo de aplicações. Para além de investigar a adequação dos vitro-cerâmicos à base de clinopyroxene como selantes, esta tese tem também como objetivo estudar a influência dos agentes de nucleação na nucleação em volume dos vitro-cerâmicos resultantes á base de diopsídio, de modo a qualificá-los como potenciais materiais hopedeiros de resíduos nucleares radioactivos.

Anodes for protonic ceramic fuel cells (PCFCs)

One of the more promising possibilities for future “green” electrical energy generation is the protonic ceramic fuel cell (PCFC). PCFCs offer a low-pollution technology to generate electricity electrochemically with high efficiency. Reducing the operating temperature of solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) to the 500-700°C range is desirable to reduce fabrication costs and improve overall longevity. This aim can be achieved by using protonic ceramic fuel cells (PCFCs) due to their higher electrolyte conductivity at these temperatures than traditional ceramic oxide-ion conducting membranes. This thesis deals with the state of the art Ni-BaZr0.85Y0.15O3-δ cermet anodes for PCFCs. The study of PCFCs is in its initial stage and currently only a few methods have been developed to prepare suitable anodes via solid state mechanical mixing of the relevant oxides or by combustion routes using nitrate precursors. This thesis aims to highlight the disadvantages of these traditional methods of anode preparation and to, instead, offer a novel, efficient and low cost nitrate free combustion route to prepare Ni-BaZr0.85Y0.15O3-δ cermet anodes for PCFCs. A wide range of techniques mainly X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), environmental scanning electron microscopy, (ESEM) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) were employed in the cermet anode study. The work also offers a fundamental examination of the effect of porosity, redox cycling behaviour, involvement of proton conducting oxide phase in PCFC cermet anodes and finally progresses to study the electrochemical performance of a state of the art anode supported PCFC. The polarisation behaviour of anodes has been assessed as a function of temperature (T), water vapour (pH2O), hydrogen partial pressures (pH2) and phase purity for electrodes of comparable microstructure. The impedance spectra generally show two arcs at high frequency R2 and low frequency R3 at 600 °C, which correspond to the electrode polarisation resistance. Work shows that the R2 and R3 terms correspond to proton transport and dissociative H2 adsorption on electrode surface, respectively. The polarization resistance of the cermet anode (Rp) was shown to be significantly affected by porosity, with the PCFC cermet anode with the lowest porosity exhibiting the lowest Rp under standard operating conditions. This result highlights that porogens are not required for peak performance in PCFC anodes, a result contrary to that of their oxide-ion conducting anode counterparts. In-situ redox cycling studies demonstrate that polarisation behaviour was drastically impaired by redox cycling. In-situ measurements using an environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) reveal that degradation proceeds due to volume expansion of the Ni-phase during the re-oxidation stage of redox cycling.The anode supported thin BCZY44 based protonic ceramic fuel cell, formed using a peak performing Ni-BaZr0.85Y0.15O3-δ cermet anode with no porogen, shows promising results in fuel cell testing conditions at intermediate temperatures with good durability and an overall performance that exceeds current literature data.

Alkaline-earth aluminosilicate-based glass and glass-ceramic sealants for functional applications

The planar design of solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) is the most promising one due to its easier fabrication, improved performance and relatively high power density. In planar SOFCs and other solid-electrolyte devices, gas-tight seals must be formed along the edges of each cell and between the stack and gas manifolds. Glass and glass-ceramic (GC), in particular alkaline-earth alumino silicate based glasses and GCs, are becoming the most promising materials for gas-tight sealing applications in SOFCs. Besides the development of new glass-based materials, new additional concepts are required to overcome the challenges being faced by the currently existing sealant technology. The present work deals with the development of glasses- and GCs-based materials to be used as a sealants for SOFCs and other electrochemical functional applications. In this pursuit, various glasses and GCs in the field of diopside crystalline materials have been synthesized and characterized by a wide array of techniques. All the glasses were prepared by melt-quenching technique while GCs were produced by sintering of glass powder compacts at the temperature ranges from 800−900 ºC for 1−1000 h. Furthermore, the influence of various ionic substitutions, especially SrO for CaO, and Ln2O3 (Ln=La, Nd, Gd, and Yb), for MgO + SiO2 in Al-containing diopside on the structure, sintering and crystallization behaviour of glasses and properties of resultant GCs has been investigated, in relevance with final application as sealants in SOFC. From the results obtained in the study of diopside-based glasses, a bilayered concept of GC sealant is proposed to overcome the challenges being faced by (SOFCs). The systems designated as Gd−0.3 (in mol%: 20.62MgO−18.05CaO−7.74SrO−46.40SiO2−1.29Al2O3 − 2.04 B2O3−3.87Gd2O3) and Sr−0.3 (in mol%: 24.54 MgO−14.73 CaO−7.36 SrO−0.55 BaO−47.73 SiO2−1.23 Al2O3−1.23 La2O3−1.79 B2O3−0.84 NiO) have been utilized to realize the bi-layer concept. Both GCs exhibit similar thermal properties, while differing in their amorphous fractions, revealed excellent thermal stability along a period of 1,000 h. They also bonded well to the metallic interconnect (Crofer22APU) and 8 mol% yttrium stabilized zirconium (8YSZ) ceramic electrolyte without forming undesirable interfacial layers at the joints of SOFC components and GC. Two separated layers composed of glasses (Gd−0.3 and Sr−0.3) were prepared and deposited onto interconnect materials using a tape casting approach. The bi-layered GC showed good wetting and bonding ability to Crofer22APU plate, suitable thermal expansion coefficient (9.7–11.1 × 10–6 K−1), mechanical reliability, high electrical resistivity, and strong adhesion to the SOFC componets. All these features confirm the good suitability of the investigated bi-layered sealant system for SOFC applications.

Extension of electrochemically active sites in SOFCs and SOECs

Solid oxide fuel (SOFCs) and electrolyzer (SOECs) cells have been promoted as promising technologies for the stabilization of fuel supply and usage in future green energy systems. SOFCs are devices that produce electricity by the oxidation of hydrogen or hydrocarbon fuels with high efficiency. Conversely, SOECs can offer the reverse reaction, where synthetic fuels can be generated by the input of renewable electricity. Due to this similar but inverse nature of SOFCs and SOECs, these devices have traditionally been constructed from comparable materials. Nonetheless, several limitations have hindered the entry of SOFCs and SOECs into the marketplace. One of the most debilitating is associated with chemical interreactions between cell components that can lead to poor longevities at high working temperatures and/or depleted electrochemcial performance. Normally such interreactions are countered by the introduction of thin, purely ionic conducting, buffer layers between the electrode and electrolyte interface. The objective of this thesis is to assess if possible improvements in electrode kinetics can also be obtained by modifying the transport properties of these buffer layers by the introduction of multivalent cations. The introduction of minor electronic conductivity in the surface of the electrolyte material has previously been shown to radically enhance the electrochemically active area for oxygen exchange, reducing polarization resistance losses. Hence, the current thesis aims to extend this knowledge to tailor a bi-functional buffer layer that can prevent chemical interreaction while also enhancing electrode kinetics.The thesis selects a typical scenario of an yttria stabilized zirconia electrolyte combined with a lanthanide containing oxygen electrode. Gadolinium, terbium and praseodymium doped cerium oxide materials have been investigated as potential buffer layers. The mixed ionic electronic conducting (MIEC) properties of the doped-cerium materials have been analyzed and collated. A detailed analysis is further presented of the impact of the buffer layers on the kinetics of the oxygen electrode in SOFC and SOEC devices. Special focus is made to assess for potential links between the transport properties of the buffer layer and subsequent electrode performance. The work also evaluates the electrochemical performance of different K2NiF4 structure cathodes deposited onto a peak performing Pr doped-cerium buffer layer, the influence of buffer layer thickness and the Pr content of the ceria buffer layer. It is shown that dramatic increases in electrode performance can be obtained by the introduction of MIEC buffer layers, where the best performances are shown to be offered by buffer layers of highest ambipolar conductivity. These buffer layers are also shown to continue to offer the bifunctional role to protect from unwanted chemical interactions at the electrode/electrolyte interface.

Materiais à base de óxidos com estrutura do tipo perovskite e compósitos como ânodos de PCES

This work was focused on the analysis of transport, thermomechanical and electrochemical properties of a series of perovskite-like oxide materials and composites for potential applications as anodes of intermediate-temperature solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) with lanthanum gallate and silicate solid electrolytes. The primary attention was centered on A(Mn,Nb)O3-δ (A = Sr, Ca) and (La,Sr)(Mn,Ti)O3-based systems, lanthanum chromite substituted with acceptor-type and variable-valence cations, and various Ni-containing cermets. Emphasis was given to phase stability of the materials, their crystal structure, microstructure of porous electrode layers and dense ceramics, electronic conductivity, Seebeck coefficient, oxygen permeability, thermal and chemical induced expansion, and anodic overpotentials of the electrodes deposited onto (La,Sr)(Ga,Mg)O3- and La10(Si,Al)6O27- based electrolyte membranes. In selected cases, roles of oxygen diffusivity, states of the transition metal cations relevant for the electronic transport, catalytically active additives and doped ceria protective interlayers introduced in the model electrochemical cells were assessed. The correlations between transport properties of the electrode materials and electrochemical behavior of porous electrodes showed that the principal factors governing anode performance include, in particular, electronic conduction of the anode compositions and cation interdiffusion between the electrodes and solid electrolytes. The latter is critically important for the silicatebased electrolyte membranes, leading to substantially worse anode properties compared to the electrochemical cells with lanthanum gallate solid electrolyte. The results made it possible to select several anode compositions exhibiting lower area-specific electrode resistivity compared to known analogues, such as (La,Sr)(Cr,Mn)O3-δ.

Metal-organic frameworks based on phosphonate linkers

During the last few decades, Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs), also known as Coordination Polymers, have attracted worldwide research attentions due to their incremented fascinating architectures and unique properties. These multidimensional materials have been potential applications in distinct areas: gas storage and separation, ion exchange, catalysis, magnetism, in optical sensors, among several others. The MOF research group at the University of Aveiro has prepared MOFs from the combination of phosphonate organic primary building units (PBUs) with, mainly, lanthanides. This thesis documents the last findings in this area involving the synthesis of multidimensional MOFs based on four di- or tripodal phosphonates ligands. The organic PBUs were designed and prepared by selecting and optimizing the best reaction conditions and synthetic routes. The self-assembly between phosphonate PBUs and rare-earths cations led to the formation of several 1D, 2D and 3D families of isotypical MOFs. The preparation of these materials was achieved by using distinct synthetic approaches: hydro(solvo)thermal, microwave- and ultrasound-assisted, one-pot and ionothermal synthesis. The selection of the organic PBUs showed to have an important role in the final architectures: while flexible phosphonate ligands afforded 1D, 2D and dense 3D structures, a large and rigid organic PBU isolated a porous 3D MOF. The crystal structure of these materials was successfully unveiled by powder or single-crystal X-ray diffraction. All multidimensional MOFs were characterized by standard solid-state techniques (FT-IR, electron microscopy (SEM and EDS), solid-state NMR, elemental and thermogravimetric analysis). Some MOF materials exhibited remarkable thermal stability and robustness up to ca. 400 ºC. The intrinsic properties of some MOFs were investigated. Photoluminescence studies revealed that the selected organic PBUs are suitable sensitizers of Tb3+ leading to the isolation of intense green-emitting materials. The suppression of the O−H quenchers by deuteration or dehydration processes improves substantially the photoluminescence of the optically-active Eu3+-based materials. Some MOF materials exhibited high heterogeneous catalytic activity and excellent regioselectivity in the ring-opening reaction of styrene oxide (PhEtO) with methanol (100% conversion of PhEtO at 55 ºC for 30 min). The porous MOF material was employed in gas separation processes. This compound showed the ability to separate propane over propylene. The ionexchanged form of this material (containing K+ cations into its network) exhibited higher affinity for CO2 being capable to separate acetylene over this environment non-friendly gas.

Materials and concepts for CO2 lean ironmaking by pyroelectrolysis

The main purpose of this PhD thesis was to provide convincing demonstration for a breakthrough concept of pyroelectrolysis at laboratory scale. One attempted to identify fundamental objections and/or the most critical constraints, to propose workable concepts for the overall process and for feasible electrodes, and to establish the main requirements on a clearer basis. The main effort was dedicated to studying suitable anode materials to be developed for large scale industrial units with molten silicate electrolyte. This concept relies on consumable anodes based on iron oxides, and a liquid Fe cathode, separated from the refractory materials by a freeze lining (solid) layer. In addition, one assessed an alternative concept of pyroelectrolysis with electron blocking membranes, and developed a prototype at small laboratory scale. The main composition of the molten electrolyte was based on a magnesium aluminosilicate composition, with minimum liquidus temperature, and with different additions of iron oxide. One studied the dynamics of devitrification of these melts, crystallization of iron oxides or other phases, and Fe2+/Fe3+ redox changes under laser zone melting, at different pulling rates. These studies were intended to provide guidelines for dissolution of raw materials (iron oxides) in the molten electrolyte, to assess compatibility with magnetite based consumable anodes, and to account for thermal gradients or insufficient thermal management in large scale cells. Several laboratory scale prototype cells were used to demonstrate the concept of pyroelectrolysis with electron blocking, and to identify the most critical issues and challenges. Operation with and without electron blocking provided useful information on transport properties of the molten electrolyte (i.e., ionic and electronic conductivities), their expected dependence on anodic and cathodic overpotentials, limitations in faradaic efficiency, and onset of side electrochemical reactions. The concept of consumable anodes was based on magnetite and derived spinel compositions, for their expected redox stability at high temperatures, even under oxidising conditions. Spinel compositions were designed for prospective gains in refractoriness and redox stability in wider ranges of conditions (T, pO2 and anodic overpotentials), without excessive penalty for electrical conductivity, thermomechanical stability or other requirements. Composition changes were also mainly based on components of the molten aluminosilicate melt, to avoid undue contamination and to minimize the dissolution rate of consumable anodes. Additional changes in composition were intended for prospective pyroelectrolysis of Fe alloys, with additions of different elements (Cr, Mn, Ni, Ti).

Medição do transporte sólido por arrastamento através de sensores acústicos

A quantificação do material sólido transportado (transporte sólido) ao longo de um curso de água é extremamente importante nas mais variadas áreas da engenharia fluvial. O transporte sólido em rios de montanha dá-se maioritariamente por arrastamento no fundo, através de deslizamento, rolamento e saltação dos sedimentos. Ao longo dos tempos foram desenvolvidas várias fórmulas para estimar o transporte sólido por arrastamento, contudo, devido à complexidade dos processos de transporte de sedimentos, bem como a variabilidade espacial e temporal, a previsão de taxas de transporte não foi conseguida exclusivamente através de investigação teórica. Para obter um melhor conhecimento sobre os processos de transporte sólido por arrastamento em rios de montanha, torna-se necessário monitorizá-los com maior precisão possível. Com os avanços na electrónica, novos métodos tecnológicos foram desenvolvidos para resolver a problemática da quantificação do transporte sólido, em detrimento dos atuais métodos tradicionais, que se baseiam na recolha de amostras em campo, para posterior correlação. O objetivo principal da presente dissertação foi o desenvolvimento de um equipamento capaz de estimar/monitorizar continuamente o transporte sólido por arrastamento em rios de montanha, que utilizasse tecnologia de baixo custo. Este equipamento dispõe de um sensor piezolelétrico que realizará medições à vibração causada pelo embate dos sedimentos sobre uma chapa metálica. A energia do sinal resultante dos impactos reverterá em peso. A metodologia usada para a obtenção das medições foi a realização de ensaios laboratoriais, tendo sido dado especial destaque à influência da variação do caudal, bem como da forma dos sedimentos, na intensidade do sinal adquirido.

Electrolytic cells for plastic waste recycling

The current project assesses potential molten alloy anodes for Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) running on solid waste. A detailed phase diagram study was performed to locate probable anode systems. The molten metal oxide system PbO-Sb2O3 was selected as a possible molten alloy anode for this application. A detailed vapour pressure study of this system was performed. Several cells were fabricated to experimentally assess the electrochemical properties of this system. The work reveals several unexpected limiting features such as the incompatibility between the platinum and the chosen alloy. A second cell was built, this time using rhenium wires instead, preventing such reaction. However, the rhenium wire sublimes under oxidizing conditions (air) and the sealing glass and the chosen alloy system react with each other under long term use. Considering all these issues, a third cell design was conceived, surpassing some obstacles and providing some initial information regarding the electrochemical behaviour. The current project shows that many parameters need to be taken into account to ensure materials compatibility. For the PbOSb2O3 system, the high volatility of Sb2O3 was a serious limitation that can only be addressed through the application of new contact wires or sealing materials and conditions. Nonetheless, the project highlights several other potential systems that can be considered, such as Pb11Ge3O17, Pb3GeO5, Pb5Ge3O11, Bi2CuO4, Bi2PdO4, Bi12GeO20.

Functional alkali tantalate 2D structures for microelectronics and related applications

Alkali tantalates and niobates, including K(Ta / Nb)O3, Li(Ta / Nb)O3 and Na(Ta / Nb)O3, are a very promising ferroic family of lead-free compounds with perovskite-like structures. Their versatile properties make them potentially interesting for current and future application in microelectronics, photocatalysis, energy and biomedics. Among them potassium tantalate, KTaO3 (KTO), has been raising interest as an alternative for the well-known strontium titanate, SrTiO3 (STO). KTO is a perovskite oxide with a quantum paraelectric behaviour when electrically stimulated and a highly polarizable lattice, giving opportunity to tailor its properties via external or internal stimuli. However problems related with the fabrication of either bulk or 2D nanostructures makes KTO not yet a viable alternative to STO. Within this context and to contribute scientifically to the leverage tantalate based compounds applications, the main goals of this thesis are: i) to produce and characterise thin films of alkali tantalates by chemical solution deposition on rigid Si based substrates, at reduced temperatures to be compatible with Si technology, ii) to fulfil scientific knowledge gaps in these relevant functional materials related to their energetics and ii) to exploit alternative applications for alkali tantalates, as photocatalysis. In what concerns the synthesis attention was given to the understanding of the phase formation in potassium tantalate synthesized via distinct routes, to control the crystallization of desired perovskite structure and to avoid low temperature pyrochlore or K-deficient phases. The phase formation process in alkali tantalates is far from being deeply analysed, as in the case of Pb-containing perovskites, therefore the work was initially focused on the process-phase relationship to identify the driving forces responsible to regulate the synthesis. Comparison of phase formation paths in conventional solid-state reaction and sol-gel method was conducted. The structural analyses revealed that intermediate pyrochlore K2Ta2O6 structure is not formed at any stage of the reaction using conventional solid-state reaction. On the other hand in the solution based processes, as alkoxide-based route, the crystallization of the perovskite occurs through the intermediate pyrochlore phase; at low temperatures pyrochlore is dominant and it is transformed to perovskite at >800 °C. The kinetic analysis carried out by using Johnson-MehlAvrami-Kolmogorow model and quantitative X-ray diffraction (XRD) demonstrated that in sol-gel derived powders the crystallization occurs in two stages: i) at early stage of the reaction dominated by primary nucleation, the mechanism is phase-boundary controlled, and ii) at the second stage the low value of Avrami exponent, n ~ 0.3, does not follow any reported category, thus not permitting an easy identification of the mechanism. Then, in collaboration with Prof. Alexandra Navrotsky group from the University of California at Davis (USA), thermodynamic studies were conducted, using high temperature oxide melt solution calorimetry. The enthalpies of formation of three structures: pyrochlore, perovskite and tetragonal tungsten bronze K6Ta10.8O30 (TTB) were calculated. The enthalpies of formation from corresponding oxides, ∆Hfox, for KTaO3, KTa2.2O6 and K6Ta10.8O30 are -203.63 ± 2.84 kJ/mol, - 358.02 ± 3.74 kJ/mol, and -1252.34 ± 10.10 kJ/mol, respectively, whereas from elements, ∆Hfel, for KTaO3, KTa2.2O6 and K6Ta10.8O30 are -1408.96 ± 3.73 kJ/mol, -2790.82 ± 6.06 kJ/mol, and -13393.04 ± 31.15 kJ/mol, respectively. The possible decomposition reactions of K-deficient KTa2.2O6 pyrochlore to KTaO3 perovskite and Ta2O5 (reaction 1) or to TTB K6Ta10.8O30 and Ta2O5 (reaction 2) were proposed, and the enthalpies were calculated to be 308.79 ± 4.41 kJ/mol and 895.79 ± 8.64 kJ/mol for reaction 1 and reaction 2, respectively. The reactions are strongly endothermic, indicating that these decompositions are energetically unfavourable, since it is unlikely that any entropy term could override such a large positive enthalpy. The energetic studies prove that pyrochlore is energetically more stable phase than perovskite at low temperature. Thus, the local order of the amorphous precipitates drives the crystallization into the most favourable structure that is the pyrochlore one with similar local organization; the distance between nearest neighbours in the amorphous or short-range ordered phase is very close to that in pyrochlore. Taking into account the stoichiometric deviation in KTO system, the selection of the most appropriate fabrication / deposition technique in thin films technology is a key issue, especially concerning complex ferroelectric oxides. Chemical solution deposition has been widely reported as a processing method to growth KTO thin films, but classical alkoxide route allows to crystallize perovskite phase at temperatures >800 °C, while the temperature endurance of platinized Si wafers is ~700 °C. Therefore, alternative diol-based routes, with distinct potassium carboxylate precursors, was developed aiming to stabilize the precursor solution, to avoid using toxic solvents and to decrease the crystallization temperature of the perovskite phase. Studies on powders revealed that in the case of KTOac (solution based on potassium acetate), a mixture of perovskite and pyrochlore phases is detected at temperature as low as 450 °C, and gradual transformation into monophasic perovskite structure occurs as temperature increases up to 750 °C, however the desired monophasic KTaO3 perovskite phase is not achieved. In the case of KTOacac (solution with potassium acetylacetonate), a broad peak is detected at temperatures <650 °C, characteristic of amorphous structures, while at higher temperatures diffraction lines from pyrochlore and perovskite phases are visible and a monophasic perovskite KTaO3 is formed at >700 °C. Infrared analysis indicated that the differences are due to a strong deformation of the carbonate-based structures upon heating. A series of thin films of alkali tantalates were spin-coated onto Si-based substrates using diol-based routes. Interestingly, monophasic perovskite KTaO3 films deposited using KTOacac solution were obtained at temperature as low as 650 °C; films were annealed in rapid thermal furnace in oxygen atmosphere for 5 min with heating rate 30 °C/sec. Other compositions of the tantalum based system as LiTaO3 (LTO) and NaTaO3 (NTO), were successfully derived as well, onto Si substrates at 650 °C as well. The ferroelectric character of LTO at room temperature was proved. Some of dielectric properties of KTO could not be measured in parallel capacitor configuration due to either substrate-film or filmelectrode interfaces. Thus, further studies have to be conducted to overcome this issue. Application-oriented studies have also been conducted; two case studies: i) photocatalytic activity of alkali tantalates and niobates for decomposition of pollutant, and ii) bioactivity of alkali tantalate ferroelectric films as functional coatings for bone regeneration. Much attention has been recently paid to develop new type of photocatalytic materials, and tantalum and niobium oxide based compositions have demonstrated to be active photocatalysts for water splitting due to high potential of the conduction bands. Thus, various powders of alkali tantalates and niobates families were tested as catalysts for methylene blue degradation. Results showed promising activities for some of the tested compounds, and KNbO3 is the most active among them, reaching over 50 % degradation of the dye after 7 h under UVA exposure. However further modifications of powders can improve the performance. In the context of bone regeneration, it is important to have platforms that with appropriate stimuli can support the attachment and direct the growth, proliferation and differentiation of the cells. In lieu of this here we exploited an alternative strategy for bone implants or repairs, based on charged mediating signals for bone regeneration. This strategy includes coating metallic 316L-type stainless steel (316L-SST) substrates with charged, functionalized via electrical charging or UV-light irradiation, ferroelectric LiTaO3 layers. It was demonstrated that the formation of surface calcium phosphates and protein adsorption is considerably enhanced for 316L-SST functionalized ferroelectric coatings. Our approach can be viewed as a set of guidelines for the development of platforms electrically functionalized that can stimulate tissue regeneration promoting direct integration of the implant in the host tissue by bone ingrowth and, hence contributing ultimately to reduce implant failure.

Electrolytes for ceramic oxide fuel cells

The main objective of this dissertation is the development and processing of novel ionic conducting ceramic materials for use as electrolytes in proton or oxide-ion conducting solid oxide fuel cells. The research aims to develop new processing routes and/or materials offering superior electrochemical behavior, based on nanometric ceramic oxide powders prepared by mechanochemical processes. Protonic ceramic fuel cells (PCFCs) require electrolyte materials with high proton conductivity at intermediate temperatures, 500-700ºC, such as reported for perovskite zirconate oxides containing alkaline earth metal cations. In the current work, BaZrO3 containing 15 mol% of Y (BZY) was chosen as the base material for further study. Despite offering high bulk proton conductivity the widespread application of this material is limited by its poor sinterability and grain growth. Thus, minor additions of oxides of zinc, phosphorous and boron were studied as possible sintering additives. The introduction of ZnO can produce substantially enhanced densification, compared to the un-doped material, lowering the sintering temperature from 1600ºC to 1300ºC. Thus, the current work discusses the best solid solution mechanism to accommodate this sintering additive. Maximum proton conductivity was shown to be obtained in materials where the Zn additive is intentionally adopted into the base perovskite composition. P2O5 additions were shown to be less effective as a sintering additive. The presence of P2O5 was shown to impair grain growth, despite improving densification of BZY for intermediate concentrations in the range 4 – 8 mol%. Interreaction of BZY with P was also shown to have a highly detrimental effect on its electrical transport properties, decreasing both bulk and grain boundary conductivities. The densification behavior of H3BO3 added BaZrO3 (BZO) shows boron to be a very effective sintering aid. Nonetheless, in the yttrium containing analogue, BaZr0.85Y0.15O3- (BZY) the densification behavior with boron additives was shown to be less successful, yielding impaired levels of densification compared to the plain BZY. This phenomenon was shown to be related to the undesirable formation of barium borate compositions of high melting temperatures. In the last section of the work, the emerging oxide-ion conducting materials, (Ba,Sr)GeO3 doped with K, were studied. Work assessed if these materials could be formed by mechanochemical process and the role of the ionic radius of the alkaline earth metal cation on the crystallographic structure, compositional homogeneity and ionic transport. An abrupt jump in oxide-ion conductivity was shown on increasing operation temperature in both the Sr and Ba analogues.

Development of Zirconia based phosphors for application in lighting and as luminescent bioprobes

The strong progress evidenced in photonic and optoelectronic areas, accompanied by an exponential development in the nanoscience and nanotechnology, gave rise to an increasing demand for efficient luminescent materials with more and more exigent characteristics. In this field, wide band gap hosts doped with lanthanide ions represent a class of luminescent materials with a strong technological importance. Within wide band gap material, zirconia owns a combination of physical and chemical properties that potentiate it as an excellent host for the aforementioned ions, envisaging its use in different areas, including in lighting and optical sensors applications, such as pressure sensors and biosensors. Following the demand for outstanding luminescent materials, there is also a request for fast, economic and an easy scale-up process for their production. Regarding these demands, laser floating zone, solution combustion synthesis and pulsed laser ablation in liquid techniques are explored in this thesis for the production of single crystals, nanopowders and nanoparticles of lanthanides doped zirconia based hosts. Simultaneously, a detailed study of the morphological, structural and optical properties of the produced materials is made. The luminescent characteristics of zirconia and yttria stabilized zirconia (YSZ) doped with different lanthanide ions (Ce3+ (4f1), Pr3+ (4f2), Sm3+ (4f5), Eu3+ (4f6), Tb3+ (4f8), Dy3+ (4f9), Er3+ (4f11), Tm3+ (4f12), Yb3+ (4f13)) and co-doped with Er3+,Yb3+ and Tm3+,Yb3+ are analysed. Besides the Stokes luminescence, the anti- Stokes emission upon infrared excitation (upconversion and black body radiation) is also analysed and discussed. The comparison of the luminescence characteristics in materials with different dimensions allowed to analyse the effect of size in the luminescent properties of the dopant lanthanide ions. The potentialities of application of the produced luminescent materials in solid state light, biosensors and pressure sensors are explored taking into account their studied characteristics.

Coupling of magnetic, strain and electric polarization fields in the structure of multiferroic material

The comprehensive study on the coupling of magnetism, electrical polarization and the crystalline lattice with the off-stoichiometric effects in self-doped multiferroic hexagonal h-LuMnxO3±δ (0.92≤x≤1.12) ceramic oxides was carried out for the PhD work. There is a complex coupling of the three ferroic degrees. The cancelation of the magnetic moments of ions in the antiferromagnetic order, electric polarization with specific vortex/antivortex topology and lattice properties have pushed researchers to find out ways to disclose the underlying physics and chemistry of magneto-electric and magneto-elastic couplings of h-RMnO3 multiferroic materials. In this research work, self-doping of Lu-sites or Mn-sites of h-LuMnxO3±δ ceramics prepared via solid state route was done to pave a way for deeper understanding of the antiferromagnetic transition, the weak ferromagnetism often reported in the same crystalline lattices and the ferroelectric properties coupled to the imposed lattice changes. Accordingly to the aim of the PhD thesis, the objectives set for the sintering study in the first chapter on experimental results were two. First, study of sintering off-stoichiometric samples within conditions reported in the bibliography and also extracted from the phase diagrams of the LuMnxO3±δ, with a multiple firings ending with a last high temperature step at 1300ºC for 24 hours. Second, explore longer annealing times of up to 240 hours at the fixed temperature of 1300 ºC in a search for improving the properties of the solid solution under study. All series of LuMnxO3±δ ceramics for each annealing time were characterized to tentatively build a framework enabling comparison of measured properties with results of others available in literature. XRD and Rietveld refinement of data give the evolution the lattice parameters as a function to x. Shrinkage of the lattice parameters with increasing x values was observed, the stability limit of the solid solution being determined by analysis of lattice parameters. The evolution of grain size and presence of secondary phases have been investigated by means of TEM, SEM, EDS and EBSD techniques. The dependencies of grain growth and regression of secondary phases on composition x and time were further characterized. Magnetic susceptibility of samples and magnetic irreversibility were extensively examined in the present work. The dependency of magnetic susceptibility, Neel ordering transition and important magnetic parameters are determined and compared to observation in other multiferroics in the following chapter of the thesis. As a tool of high sensitivity to detect minor traces of the secondary phase hausmannite, magnetic measurements are suggested for cross-checking of phase diagrams. Difficulty of previous studies on interpreting the magnetic anomaly below 43 K in h-RMnO3 oxides was discussed and assigned to the Mn3O4 phase, with supported of the electron microscopy. Magneto-electric coupling where AFM ordering is coupled to dielectric polarization is investigated as a function of x and of sintering condition via frequency and temperature dependent complex dielectric constant measurements in the final chapter of the thesis. Within the limits of solid solubility, the crystalline lattice of off-stoichiometric ceramics was shown to preserve the magneto-electric coupling at TN. It represents the first research work on magneto-electric coupling modified by vacancy doping to author’s knowledge. Studied lattices would reveal distortions at the atomic scale imposed by local changes of x dependent on sintering conditions which were widely inspected by using TEM/STEM methods, complemented with EDS and EELS spectroscopy all together to provide comprehensive information on cross coupling of distortions, inhomogeneity and electronic structure assembled and discussed in a specific chapter. Internal interfaces inside crystalline grains were examined. Qualitative explanations of the measured magnetic and ferroelectric properties were established in relation to observed nanoscale features of h-LuMnxO3±δ ceramics. Ferroelectric domains and topological defects are displayed both in TEM and AFM/PFM images, the later technique being used to look at size, distribution and switching of ferroelectric domains influenced by vacancy doping at the micron scale bridging to complementary TEM studies on the atomic structure of ferroelectric domains. In support to experimental study, DFT simulations using Wien2K code have been carried out in order to interpret the results of EELS spectra of O K-edge and to obtain information on the cation hybridization to oxygen ions. The L3,2 edges of Mn is used to access the oxidation state of the Mn ions inside crystalline grains. In addition, rehybridization driven ferroelectricity is also evaluated by comparing the partial density of states of the orbitals of all ions of the samples, also the polarization was calculated and correlated to the off-stoichiometric effect.

Monitorização das condições de operação de uma caldeira a biomassa

A reduzida informação e o pouco trabalho científico desenvolvido na área de sistemas de combustão de biomassa de média potência, faz dos objectivos propostos neste trabalho elementos importantes. O trabalho científico a seguir apresentado, vai permitir obter as bases para o desenvolvimento de condições apropriadas de operação de sistemas de combustão a biomassa, aumentando a eficiência e a rentabilidade económica deste tipo de sistema energético. O principal objetivo do presente trabalho consistiu na aplicação de metodologias de monitorização que permitam caracterizar e melhorar a eficiência do sistema de combustão, na implementação dos métodos escolhidos e na monitorização das condições de operação de uma caldeira industrial de combustão de biomassa, destacando-se: (i) monitorização dos caudais de alimentação de biomassa à caldeira realizada por sistemas de alimentação sem-fim; (ii) análise e monitorização de temperaturas e pressão; (iii) monitorização do caudal de ar de combustão; (iv) monitorização do caudal de gases de exaustão; (v) monitorização da potência térmica; (vi) monitorização da composição do efluente gasoso. A caracterização físicas de amostras de biomassa, o teste a diferentes tipos de biomassa com diferentes condições de operação e a recolha de amostras de cinzas de combustão para a caracterização físico-química são outros métodos de monitorização e caracterização aplicados. Também foi desenvolvido e aplicado um ensaio de controlo do sistema de alimentação em modo de operação manual e comparado com o sistema de controlo do sistema de alimentação em modo de operação automático. O estudo realizado permite concluir que deve ser desenvolvido e implementado um algoritmo de controlo e operação da fornalha que permita um doseamento mais adequado dos caudais de combustível e ar de combustão com vista a melhorar o desempenho do sistema combustão.