Assessing the effectiveness of chemical treatment with nanomaterials in improving the quality of different industrial effluents

Industrial activities are the major sources of pollution in all environments. Depending on the type of industry, various levels of organic and inorganic pollutants are being continuously discharged into the environment. Although, several kinds of physical, chemical, biological or the combination of methods have been proposed and applied to minimize the impact of industrial effluents, few have proved to be totally effective in terms of removal rates of several contaminants, toxicity reduction or amelioration of physical and chemical properties. Hence, it is imperative to develop new and innovative methodologies for industrial wastewater treatment. In this context nanotechnology arises announcing the offer of new possibilities for the treatment of wastewaters mainly based on the enhanced physical and chemical proprieties of nanomaterials (NMs), which can remarkably increase their adsorption and oxidation potential. Although applications of NMs may bring benefits, their widespread use will also contribute for their introduction into the environment and concerns have been raised about the intentional use of these materials. Further, the same properties that make NMs so appealing can also be responsible for producing ecotoxicological effects. In a first stage, with the objective of selecting NMs for the treatment of organic and inorganic effluents we first assessed the potential toxicity of nanoparticles of nickel oxide (NiO) with two different sizes (100 and 10-20 nm), titanium dioxide (TiO2, < 25 nm) and iron oxide (Fe2O3, ≈ 85x425 nm). The ecotoxicological assessment was performed with a battery of assays using aquatic organisms from different trophic levels. Since TiO2 and Fe2O3 were the NMs that presented lower risks to the aquatic systems, they were selected for the second stage of this work. Thus, the two NMs pre-selected were tested for the treatment of olive mill wastewater (OMW). They were used as catalyst in photodegradation systems (TiO2/UV, Fe2O3/UV, TiO2/H2O2/UV and Fe2O3/H2O2/UV). The treatments with TiO2 or Fe2O3 combined with H2O2 were the most efficient in ameliorating some chemical properties of the effluent. Regarding the toxicity to V. fischeri the highest reduction was recorded for the H2O2/UV system, without NMs. Afterwards a sequential treatment using photocatalytic oxidation with NMs and degradation with white-rot fungi was applied to OMW. This new approach increased the reduction of chemical oxygen demand, phenolic content and ecotoxicity to V. fischeri. However, no reduction in color and aromatic compounds was achieved after 21 days of biological treatment. The photodegradation systems were also applied to treat the kraft pulp mill and mining effluents. For the organic effluent the combination NMs and H2O2 had the best performances in reduction the chemical parameters as well in terms of toxicity reduction. However, for the mine effluent the best (TiO2/UV and Fe2O3/UV) were only able to significantly remove three metals (Zn, Al and Cd). Nonetheless the treatments were able of reducing the toxicity of the effluent. As a final stage, the toxicity of solid wastes formed during wastewater treatment with NMs was assessed with Chironomus riparius larvae, a representative species of the sediment compartment. Certain solid wastes showed the potential to negatively affect C. riparius survival and growth, depending on the type of effluent treated. This work also brings new insights to the use of NMs for the treatment of industrial wastewaters. Although some potential applications have been announced, many evaluations have to be performed before the upscaling of the chemical treatments with NMs.

Molecular study of cell degeneration and evolution induced by mRNA mistranslation

As proteínas existentes nas células são produzidas pelo mecanismo de tradução do mRNA, no qual a informação genética contida nos genes é descodificada em cadeias polipeptídicas. O código genético, que define as regras de descodificação do genoma, minimiza os erros de tradução do mRNA, garantindo a síntese de proteínas com elevada fidelidade. Esta é essencial para a estabilidade do proteoma e para a manutenção e funcionamento dos processos celulares. Em condições fisiológicas normais, os erros da tradução do mRNA ocorrem com frequências que variam de 10-3 a 10-5 erros por codão descodificado. Situações que aumentam este erro basal geralmente estão associadas ao envelhecimento, stresse e a doenças; no entanto, em certos organismos o código genético é traduzido naturalmente com elevado erro, indicando que a síntese de proteínas aberrantes pode de algum modo ser vantajosa. A fim de estudar a resposta celular aos erros de tradução do mRNA, construímos leveduras que incorporam serina no proteoma em resposta a um codão de leucina, usando a expressão constitutiva de um tRNASer mutante. Este fenómeno genético artificial provocou uma forte diminuição da esporulação, da viabilidade e da eficiência de mating, afectando imensamente a reprodução sexual da levedura. Observou-se também uma grande heterogeneidade no tamanho e na forma das células e elevada instabilidade genómica, com o aparecimento de populações poliplóides e aneuplóides. No sentido de clarificar as bases celulares e moleculares daqueles fenótipos e compreender melhor a biologia do erro de tradução do mRNA, construímos também células de levedura que inserem serina em resposta a um codão de leucina de modo indutível e controlado. Utilizaram-se perfis de mRNA total e de mRNA associado a polissomas para elucidar a resposta celular ao erro de tradução do mRNA. Observou-se a indução de genes envolvidos na resposta ao stresse geral, stresse oxidativo e na unfolded protein response (UPR). Um aumento significativo de espécies reactivas de oxigénio (ROS) e um forte impacto negativo na capacidade das células pós-mitóticas re-iniciarem o crescimento foram também observados. Este fenótipo de perda de viabilidade celular foi resgatado por scavangers de ROS, indicando que o stresse oxidativo é a principal causa de morte celular causada pelos erros de tradução. Este estudo levanta a hipótese de que o stresse oxidativo e a acumulação de ROS, ao invés do colapso súbito do proteoma, são as principais causas da degeneração celular e das doenças humanas associadas aos erros de tradução do genoma. ABSTRACT: Proteins are synthesized through the mechanism of translation, which uses the genetic code to transform the nucleic acids based information of the genome into the amino acids based information of the proteome. The genetic code evolved in such a manner that translational errors are kept to a minimum and even when they occur their impact is minimized by similar chemical properties of the amino acids. Protein synthesis fidelity is essential for proteome stability and for functional maintenance of cellular processes. Indeed, under normal physiological conditions, mistranslation occurs at frequencies that range from 10-3 to 10-5 errors per codon decoded. Situations where this basal error frequency increases are usually associated to aging and disease. However, there are some organisms where genetic code errors occur naturally at high level, suggesting that mRNA mistranslation can somehow be beneficial. In order to study the cellular response to mRNA mistranslation, we have engineered single codon mistranslation in yeast cells, using constitutive expression of mutant tRNASer genes. These mistranslating strains inserted serines at leucine-CUG sites on a proteome wide scale due to competition between the wild type tRNALeu with the mutant tRNASer. Such mistranslation event decreased yeast sporulation, viability and mating efficiencies sharply and affected sexual reproduction strongly. High heterogeneity in cell size and shape and high instability in the genome were also observed, with the appearance of some polyploid or aneuploid cell populations. To further study the cellular and molecular basis of those phenotypes and the biology of mRNA mistranslation, we have also engineered inducible mRNA misreading in yeast and used total mRNA and polysome associated mRNA profiling to determine whether codon misreading affects gene expression. Induced mistranslation up-regulated genes involved in the general stress response, oxidative stress and in the unfolded protein response (UPR). A significant increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) and a strong negative impact on the capacity of post-mitotic cells to re-initiate growth in fresh media were also observed. This cell viability phenotype was rescued by scavengers of ROS, indicating that oxidative stress is the main cause of cell death caused by mRNA mistranslation. This study provides strong support for the hypothesis that oxidative stress and ROS accumulation, rather than sudden proteome collapse or major proteome disruption, are the main cause of the cellular degeneration observed in human diseases associated mRNA mistranslation.

Conformação automática de formas complexas em vidro de mesa

Os objectivos do presente trabalho foram a investigação dos principais defeitos que ocorrem nos produtos de vidro de mesa produzidos por processos automáticos e o desenvolvimento de novos vidros e tecnologias que permitam aumentar os rendimentos de produção, ou a flexibilidade da operação de conformação. A viscosidade influencia a facilidade de conformação dos produtos. Temperaturas de gota mais baixas, espessuras de parede de produtos mais elevadas e baixas áreas de transferência térmica facilitam a ocorrência de defeitos, sobretudo mecânicos e de superfície. Foram identificados os produtos de vidro de mesa que apresentam maiores dificuldades na conformação, designados por produtos de forma complexa. Por ser um factor relevante na prática, discutiu-se o efeito da quantidade de casco usado na elaboração dos vidros sobre a conformação de produtos de forma complexa. A quantidade de casco influencia a volatilização de fundentes que por sua vez tem efeito sobre as propriedades de trabalhabilidade do vidro. Desenvolveram-se novos vidros compatíveis com a utilização de queimos enriquecidos em oxigénio que são utilizados para reduzirem os defeitos mecânicos e de superfície nos produtos de vidros de mesa prensados. A compatibilidade vidro/tecnologia fez-se com uma modificação do sistema de afinação do vidro. Os vidros modificados apresentam propriedades físicoquímicas semelhantes à do vidro inicial e por isso indicam viabilidade comercial. A tecnologia dos canais corantes foi utilizada para modificar a trabalhabilidade de um vidro base a partir da introdução até 5 % de fritas incolores ricas em Li2O. Os valores de RMS (velocidade relativa de máquina) desceram de 106,8 % para 95,7 % enquanto os valores de Pt (patamar de trabalho) subiram de 100,6 s para 111,3 s com o aumento de frita. As propriedades físico-químicas dos vidros aditivados com frita indicam viabilidade comercial. Esta inovação tecnológica introduz flexibilidade nos processos industriais vidreiros. A composição química do vidro e por isso as propriedades relacionadas com a trabalhabilidade podem ser entendidas como mais uma variável dos processos de conformação e usadas em função das técnicas de conformação disponíveis, da forma dos objectos a conformar e da engenharia da ferramenta moldante utilizada. Foi observada convergência entre os resultados experimentais e os valores calculados a partir dos modelos de Huff e Fluegel nos principais parâmetros da tecnologia vidreira (RMS e Pt) e nas propriedades dos vidros nomeadamente densidade e coeficiente de dilatação térmico. Uma parte importante deste trabalho decorreu em ambiente industrial. Em temas relacionados com a investigação do processamento vidreiro industrial, a prática de desenvolver trabalho experimental integrado no próprio ambiente industrial está claramente documentada na bibliografia publicada em revistas e jornais de referência internacional. ABSTRACT: The research on the causes of major defects that occur in glass tableware products produced by automatic processes and the development of new glasses and technologies for increasing the production efficiency, or the flexibility of operation were the objectives of the Thesis project. Viscosity influences the flexibility of glass forming. Lower drop temperatures, high product wall thicknesses, or low areas of heat transfer facilitate the occurrence of defects, mainly mechanical and surface born. We identified the products of glass tableware showing the greatest difficulties in forming, designated as complex shape products. The effect of the amount of recycled glass used in the preparation of glass batches on the conformation of products of complex shapes and on glass workability is discussed. The amount of recycled glass affects the volatilization of glass modifiers which in turn have an effect on the glass properties and workability. New glasses which become compatible with the use of oxygen burners were formulated, tested and developed to the industrial use, oxygen enrichment being used to reduce the mechanical and surface defects in pressed glass tableware. Compatibility glass / technology was achieved with a modified system of tuning of the glass. The modified glasses have physical and chemical properties similar to the original glass and therefore are commercially viable. The technology of the colouring channels was used to change glass workability of a glass base by the introduction of up to 5 % Li2O rich in colourless frit. The values of RMS (relative machine speed) fell from 106.8 % to 95.7 % while the values of Pt (cooling time) increased from 100.6 s to 111.3 s by the introduction of glass frits. The physico-chemical properties of the modified glass show commercial viability. This technology introduces flexibility in industrial processes of glass. The chemical composition of glass and therefore the properties related to workability can be understood as another variable of the glass forming processes and used according to the available forming techniques, the shape of objects and the engineering tools used for the moulds. Convergence was observed between experimental and predicted from Huff and Fluegel models in studying the properties of glasses. An important part of this work was done inside the industrial environment. On issues related to the investigation of the glass processing inside the industry, the practice of developing experimental work integrated in the industrial environment is clearly documented and referenced in the published literature in international journals and periodicals.

Novel microporous silicates and mesoporous MCM materials derivatised with inorganic and organometallic complexes

Os materiais microporosos e mesoporosos são potenciais catalisadores heterogéneos. Os zeólitos e outros materiais microporosos do tipo zeolítico tradicionais, têm átomos tetracoordenados no esqueleto. Nos últimos anos, um vasto número de titanossilicatos contendo Ti(IV) hexacoordenado e Si(IV) tetracoordenado, com estruturas tridimensionais, têm sido alvo de grande interesse. Um dos objectivos desta tese foi preparar silicatos microporosos, contendo átomos metálicos com número de coordenação superior a quatro, e possuindo quer novas estruturas quer propriedades físicas e químicas interessantes. Neste contexto, foi preparado um novo ítriossilicato de sódio, AV-1, análogo do raro mineral montregianite, Na4K2Y2Si16O38·10H2O. Este material é o primeiro sólido microporoso que contem quantidades estequiométricas de sódio (e ítrio) no esqueleto. Foi, também, sintetizado um silicato de cério, AV-5, análogo estrutural do mineral montregianite com potencial aplicação em optoelectrónica. Nesta tese é, ainda, descrita a síntese e caracterização estrutural de um silicato de cálcio hidratado, AV-2, análogo do raro mineral rhodesite (K2Ca4Na2Si16O38.12H2O). Na continuação do trabalho desenvolvido em Aveiro na síntese de novos titanossilicatos surgiu o interesse de preparar novos zirconossilicatos microporosos por síntese hidrotérmica. Foram preparados dois novos materiais análogos dos minerais petarasite Na5Zr2Si3O18(Cl,OH)·2H2O (AV-3) e kostylevite, K2Si3O9·H2O (AV-8). Foram, também, obtidos análogos sintéticos dos minerais parakeldyshite e wadeite, por calcinação a alta temperatura de AV-3 e de umbite sintética. A heterogeneização de complexos organometálicos na superfície de materiais mesoporosos do tipo M41S permite associar a grande actividade catalítica e a presença de sítios activos localizados típicos dos complexos organometálicos, com a robustez e fácil separação, características dos materiais mesoporosos siliciosos. Nesta dissertação relata-se a derivatização dos materiais MCM-41 e MCM-48 através da reacção de [SiMe2{(h5-C5H4)2}]Fe e [SiMe2{(h5-C5H4)2}]TiCl2 com os grupos silanol das superfícies mesoporosas. Os materiais MCMs derivatizados com ansa-titanoceno foram testados na epoxidação de cicloocteno a 323 K na presença de hidrogenoperóxido de t-butilo. Estudou-se a heterogeneização dos sais de complexos com ligação metal-metal [Mo2(MeCN)10][BF4]4, [Mo2(m-O2CMe)2(MeCN)6][BF4]2 e [Mo2(m- O2CMe)2(dppa)2(MeCN)2][BF4]2 via imobilização nos canais do MCM-41. A imobilização dos catalisadores homogéneos na superfície do MCM-41 envolve a saída dos ligandos nitrilo lábeis, preferencialmente em posição axial, através da reacção com os grupos Si-OH da sílica. Verificou-se que a ligação Mo-Mo se mantém intacta nos produtos finais. É provável que estes materiais sejam eficientes catalisadores heterogéneos em reacções de polimerização. As técnicas de caracterização utilizadas nesta tese foram a difracção de raios-X de pós, a microscopia electrónica de varrimento, a espectroscopia de ressonância magnética nuclear do estado sólido (núcleos 13C, 23Na e 29Si), as espectroscopias de Raman e infravermelho com transformadas de Fourier, as análises termogravimétricas e as análises de adsorção de água e azoto.

Multifunctional nanoparticles for MR and fluorescence imaging

In the past few years a new generation of multifunctional nanoparticles (NPs) has been proposed for biomedical applications, whose structure is more complex than the structure of their predecessor monofunctional counterparts. The development of these novel NPs aims at enabling or improving the performance in imaging, diagnosis and therapeutic applications. The structure of such NPs comprises several components exhibiting various functionalities that enable the nanoparticles to perform multiple tasks simultaneously, such as active targeting of certain cells or compartmentalization, imaging and delivery of active drugs. This thesis presents two types of bimodal bio-imaging probes and describes their physical and chemical properties, namely their texture, structure, and 1H dynamics and relaxometry, in order to evaluate their potential as MRI contrast agents. The photoluminescence properties of these probes are studied, aiming at assessing their interest as optical contrast agents. These materials combine the properties of the trivalent lanthanide (Ln3+) complexes and nanoparticles, offering an excellent solution for bimodal imaging. The designed T1- type contrast agent are SiO2@APS/DTPA:Gd:Ln or SiO2@APS/PMN:Gd:Ln (Ln= Eu or Tb) systems, bearing the active magnetic center (Gd3+) and the optically-active ions (Eu3+ and Tb3+) on the surface of silica NPs. Concerning the relaxometry properties, moderate r1 increases and significant r2 increases are observed in the NPs presence, especially at high magnetic fields, due to susceptibility effects on r2. The Eu3+ ions reside in a single low-symmetry site, and the photoluminescence emission is not influenced by the simultaneous presence of Gd3+ and Eu3+. The presence of Tb3+, rather than Eu3+ ion, further increases r1 but decreases r2. The uptake of these NPs by living cells is fast and results in an intensity increase in the T1-weighted MRI images. The optical features of the NPs in cellular pellets are also studied and confirm the potential of these new nanoprobes as bimodal imaging agents. This thesis further reports on a T2 contrast agent consisting of core-shell NPs with a silica shell surrounding an iron oxide core. The thickness of this silica shell has a significant impact on the r2 and r2* relaxivities, and a tentative model is proposed to explain this finding. The cell viability and the mitochondrial dehydrogenase expression given by the microglial cells are also evaluated.

Estratégias de alteração da funcionalidade de proteínas de soja

Este trabalho teve como principal objetivo estudar e modificar as propriedades funcionais das proteínas de soja de forma a otimizar e diversificar a sua aplicação industrial. Para tal, foram propostas e estudadas quatro estratégias: i) extração do isolado de proteínas de soja (IPS) a partir de diferentes matérias-primas, ii) adição de galactomananas (GM) com graus de ramificação e massas moleculares diferentes, iii) hidrólise enzimática controlada das proteínas de soja, iv) processamento por alta pressão hidrostática. O estudo e a interpretação da influência destas estratégias sobre as propriedades funcionais das proteínas de soja, nomeadamente, na capacidade gelificante e emulsionante, foram realizados recorrendo fundamentalmente a ensaios reológicos dinâmicos a baixas deformação, espectroscopia de infravermelho, electroforeses, calorimetria diferencial de varrimento e ensaios de microscopia confocal de varrimento laser. O estudo da extração e caracterização dos isolados de proteínas de soja obtidos a partir de diferentes matérias-primas permitiu concluir que as caraterísticas físico-químicas dos isolados são dependentes da origem da matéria-prima de extração e da severidade dos tratamentos industriais prévios à extração do isolado. Contudo, as propriedades viscoelásticas dos géis obtidos por aquecimento controlado não foram significativamente distintas embora tenha sido possível relacionar o grau de agregação com a diminuição da temperatura de gelificação e com o aumento inicial dos módulos viscoelásticos. As alterações sofridas pelos isolados de origem comercial mostraram ser irreversíveis resultando em géis menos rígidos e com maior caráter viscoso. A adição de galactomanana alterou significativamente o mecanismo de gelificação induzido termicamente das proteínas de soja, bem como as propriedades viscoelásticas dos géis e a microestrutura dos géis, demonstrando-se a ocorrência de separação de fases, em virtude da incompatibilidade termodinâmica entre os biopolímeros, resultando em géis mais rígidos e no decréscimo da temperatura de gelificação. A extensão destas alterações foi dependente da massa molecular, grau de ramificação e da razão IPS/GM. O efeito da hidrólise enzimática por ação da bromelina, nas propriedades gelificantes e emulsionantes das proteínas de soja, mostrou ser dependente do grau de hidrólise (GH). Valores de GH inferiores a 15 % melhoraram as propriedades gelificantes das proteínas de soja. Por outro lado, o aumento do GH teve um efeito negativo nas propriedades emulsionantes, o qual foi atenuado por adição da goma de alfarroba, com efeito positivo na gelificação das proteínas de soja. A concentração crítica limite de compatibilidade entre os hidrolisados de proteína de soja e a goma de alfarroba aumentou com o decréscimo do GH e da massa molecular do polissacacrídeo. O efeito da AP sobre as propriedades físico-químicas e funcionais dos IPS foi influenciado pela origem do isolado e pelas condições de tratamento. O processamento até 100 MPa desencadeou um aumento da atividade emulsionante e considerável melhoria da capacidade gelificante. Contudo, valores de pressão superiores promoveram a desnaturação das proteínas constituintes dos isolados, resultando no decréscimo da temperatura de gelificação e numa re-associação das subunidades proteicas, diminuindo a elasticidade dos géis finais. Os resultados sugeriram que as alterações nas proteínas de soja promovidas durante o tratamento por AP constituem um fator limitante para o desdobramento e re-associação durante o aquecimento térmico, necessários para a formação e fortalecimento de gel formado. O processamento por AP influenciou a estrutura secundária e a microestrutura das amostras. A presença de GA teve um papel baroprotetor. Assim, com este trabalho demonstrou-se que com as estratégias seguidas para manipulação das propriedades funcionais de proteínas de soja, nomeadamente através da adição de um polissacarídeo com propriedades estruturais controladas, da adequada combinação da adição de um polissacarídeo neutro com a hidrólise controlada das proteínas ou com tratamento por alta pressão, é possível a criação de novas funcionalidades, com utilidade no desenvolvimento de novas formulações alimentares, permitindo expandir a aplicação destas proteínas vegetais.

Biofabricação de enxertos porosos de PCL/FastOs™: aplicação óssea

A Engenharia de Tecidos é um domínio multidisciplinar que combina especialistas de múltiplos domínios, no sentido de se desenvolverem substitutos biológicos para a regeneração, reparação ou restauração de funções de órgãos ou tecidos. A estratégia mais comum em engenharia de tecidos consiste na utilização de matrizes de suporte (scaffolds) tridimensionais, biocompatíveis, biodegradáveis e altamente porosos, os quais servem de substrato físico ao processo de adesão, proliferação e diferenciação celular. O objectivo deste trabalho de investigação centrou-se na produção e caracterização de scaffolds de PCL e de PCL com partículas de biovidro, abordando um processo de biofabricação, que teve por base o princípio da extrusão. Utilizou-se para tal um equipamento patenteado pelo Centro para o Desenvolvimento Rápido e Sustentado do Produto (CDRsp) designado Bioextruder. Trata-se de um sistema concebido para a produção de matrizes com ou sem encapsulamento de células, de uma forma automática, flexível e integrada. As estruturas obtidas caracterizaram-se quanto às propriedades térmicas, químicas, morfológicas e mecânicas. Realizaram-se ainda, testes de bioactividade e testes de degradação in vitro. Os resultados obtidos mostram que as condições de processamento não induzem qualquer alteração no que diz respeito às propriedades térmicas e químicas dos materiais, que o aumento do teor de biovidro conduz a uma fragmentação da matriz polimérica num período de tempo mais curto, que os scaffolds obtidos apresentam uma geometria bem definida e uma distribuição de poros uniforme. Demonstra-se assim, que a combinação da matriz polimérica (PCL) com o biovidro, sob a forma de scaffolds é promissora para aplicações em Engenharia de Tecidos e Medicina Regenerativa.

Characterization of water-soluble organic matter from urban aerosols

Water-soluble organic matter (WSOM) from atmospheric particles comprises a complex array of molecular structures that play an important role on the physic-chemical properties of atmospheric particles and, therefore, are linked to several global-relevant atmospheric processes which impact the climate and public health. Due to the large variety of sources and formation processes, adequate knowledge on WSOM composition and its effects on the properties of atmospheric aerosol are still limited. Therefore, this thesis aims at providing new insights on the molecular composition of WSOM from fine atmospheric aerosols typical of an urban area (Aveiro, Portugal). In a first step, adsorption phenomena of semivolatile organic compounds on quartz fibre filters employed in the collection of atmospheric aerosols were assessed. Afterwards, atmospheric aerosol samples were collected during fifteen months, on a weekly basis. A mass balance of aerosol samples was performed in order to set the relative contribution of elemental carbon, WSOM and water-insoluble organic matter to the aerosol mass collected at the urban area of Aveiro, with a special focus on the assessment of the influence of different meteorological conditions. In order to assess the chemical complexity of the WSOM from urban aerosols, their structural characteristics were studied by means of Fourier transform infrared infrared - Attenuated Total Reflectance (FTIR-ATR) and solid-state cross polarization with magic angle spinning 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (CPMAS 13C NMR) spectroscopies, as well as their elemental composition. The structural characterization of aerosol WSOM samples collected in the urban area highlighted a highly complex mixture of functional groups. It was concluded that aliphatic and aromatic structures, hydroxyl groups and carboxyl groups are characteristic to all samples. The semi-quantitative assessment of the CPMAS 13C NMR data showed different distributions of the various functional groups between the aerosol samples collected at different seasons. Moreover, the presence of signals typical of lignin-derived structures in both CPMAS 13C NMR and FTIR-ATR spectra of the WSOM samples from the colder seasons, highlights the major contribution of biomass burning processes in domestic fireplaces, during low temperature conditions, into the bulk chemical properties of WSOM from urban aerosols. A comprehensive two-dimensional liquid chromatography (LC x LC) method, on-line coupled to a diode array, fluorescence, and evaporative light scattering detectors, was employed for resolving the chemical heterogeneity of the aerosol WSOM samples and, simultaneously, to map the hydrophobicity versus the molecular weight distribution of the samples. The LC x LC method employed a mixed-mode hydrophilic interaction column operating under aqueous reversed phase mode in the first dimension, and a size-exclusion column in the second dimension, which was found to be useful for separating the aerosol WSOM samples into various fractions with distinct molecular weight and hydrophobic features. The estimative of the average molecular weight (Mw) distribution of the urban aerosol WSOM samples ranged from 48 to 942 Da and from 45 to 1241 Da in terms of UV absorption and fluorescence detection, respectively. Findings suggest that smaller Mw group fractions seem to be related to a more hydrophobic nature.

Analysis of the organic matter associated to sea salt : definition of potential molecular markers based on the volatile composition and presence of glycosidic derivatives and polysaccharides

Sea salt is a natural product obtained from the evaporation of seawater in saltpans due to the combined effect of wind and sunlight. Nowadays, there is a growing interest for protection and re-valorisation of saltpans intrinsically associated to the quality of sea salt that can be evaluated by its physico-chemical properties. These man-made systems can be located in different geographical areas presenting different environmental surroundings. During the crystallization process, organic compounds coming from these surroundings can be incorporated into sea salt crystals, influencing their final composition. The organic matter associated to sea salt arises from three main sources: algae, surrounding bacterial community, and anthropogenic activity. Based on the hypothesis that sea salt contains associated organic compounds that can be used as markers of the product, including saltpans surrounding environment, the aim of this PhD thesis was to identify these compounds. With this purpose, this work comprised: 1) a deep characterisation of the volatile composition of sea salt by headspace solid phase microextraction combined with comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HS-SPME/GCGC–ToFMS) methodology, in search of potential sea salt volatile markers; 2) the development of a methodology to isolate the polymeric material potentially present in sea salt, in amounts that allow its characterisation in terms of polysaccharides and protein; and 3) to explore the possible presence of triacylglycerides. The high chromatographic resolution and sensitivity of GC×GC–ToFMS enabled the separation and identification of a higher number of volatile compounds from sea salt, about three folds, compared to unidimentional chromatography (GC–qMS). The chromatographic contour plots obtained revealed the complexity of marine salt volatile composition and confirmed the relevance of GC×GC–ToFMS for this type of analysis. The structured bidimentional chromatographic profile arising from 1D volatility and 2D polarity was demonstrated, allowing more reliable identifications. Results obtained for analysis of salt from two locations in Aveiro and harvested over three years suggest the loss of volatile compounds along the time of storage of the salt. From Atlantic Ocean salts of seven different geographical origins, all produced in 2007, it was possible to identify a sub-set of ten compounds present in all salts, namely 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one, 2,2,6-trimethylcyclohexanone, isophorone, ketoisophorone, β-ionone-5,6-epoxide, dihydroactinidiolide, 6,10,14-trimethyl-2-pentadecanone, 3-hydroxy-2,4,4-trimethylpentyl 2-methylpropanoate, 2,4,4-trimethylpentane-1,3-diyl bis(2-methylpropanoate), and 2-ethyl-1-hexanol. These ten compounds were considered potential volatile markers of sea salt. Seven of these compounds are carotenoid-derived compounds, and the other three may result from the integration of compounds from anthropogenic activity as metabolites of marine organisms. The present PhD work also allowed the isolation and characterisation, for the first time, of polymeric material from sea salt, using 16 Atlantic Ocean salts. A dialysis-based methodology was developed to isolate the polymeric material from sea salt in amounts that allowed its characterisation. The median content of polymeric material isolated from the 16 salts was 144 mg per kg of salt, e.g. 0.014% (w/w). Mid-infrared spectroscopy and thermogravimetry revealed the main occurrence of sulfated polysaccharides, as well as the presence of protein in the polymeric material from sea salt. Sea salt polysaccharides were found to be rich in uronic acid residues (21 mol%), glucose (18), galactose (16), and fucose (13). Sulfate content represented a median of 45 mol%, being the median content of sulfated polysaccharides 461 mg/g of polymeric material, which accounted for 66 mg/kg of dry salt. Glycosidic linkage composition indicates that the main sugar residues that could carry one or more sulfate groups were identified as fucose and galactose. This fact allowed to infer that the polysaccharides from sea salt arise mainly from algae, due to their abundance and composition. The amino acid profile of the polymeric material from the 16 Atlantic Ocean salts showed as main residues, as medians, alanine (25 mol%), leucine (14), and valine (14), which are hydrophobic, being the median protein content 35 mg/g, i.e. 4,9 mg per kg of dry salt. Beside the occurrence of hydrophobic volatile compounds in sea salt, hydrophobic non-volatile compounds were also detected. Triacylglycerides were obtained from sea salt by soxhlet extraction with n-hexane. Fatty acid composition revealed palmitic acid as the major residue (43 mol%), followed by stearic (13), linolenic (13), oleic (12), and linoleic (9). Sea salt triacylglycerides median content was 1.5 mg per kg of dry salt. Both protein and triacylglycerides seem to arise from macro and microalgae, phytoplankton and cyanobacteria, due to their abundance and composition. Despite the variability resulting from saltpans surrounding environment, this PhD thesis allowed the identification of a sea salt characteristic organic compounds profile based on volatile compounds, polysaccharides, protein, and triacylglycerides.

NMR in the characterization of heavy residual procedural streams

The main objective of this work was to monitor a set of physical-chemical properties of heavy oil procedural streams through nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, in order to propose an analysis procedure and online data processing for process control. Different statistical methods which allow to relate the results obtained by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy with the results obtained by the conventional standard methods during the characterization of the different streams, have been implemented in order to develop models for predicting these same properties. The real-time knowledge of these physical-chemical properties of petroleum fractions is very important for enhancing refinery operations, ensuring technically, economically and environmentally proper refinery operations. The first part of this work involved the determination of many physical-chemical properties, at Matosinhos refinery, by following some standard methods important to evaluate and characterize light vacuum gas oil, heavy vacuum gas oil and fuel oil fractions. Kinematic viscosity, density, sulfur content, flash point, carbon residue, P-value and atmospheric and vacuum distillations were the properties analysed. Besides the analysis by using the standard methods, the same samples were analysed by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The second part of this work was related to the application of multivariate statistical methods, which correlate the physical-chemical properties with the quantitative information acquired by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Several methods were applied, including principal component analysis, principal component regression, partial least squares and artificial neural networks. Principal component analysis was used to reduce the number of predictive variables and to transform them into new variables, the principal components. These principal components were used as inputs of the principal component regression and artificial neural networks models. For the partial least squares model, the original data was used as input. Taking into account the performance of the develop models, by analysing selected statistical performance indexes, it was possible to conclude that principal component regression lead to worse performances. When applying the partial least squares and artificial neural networks models better results were achieved. However, it was with the artificial neural networks model that better predictions were obtained for almost of the properties analysed. With reference to the results obtained, it was possible to conclude that nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy combined with multivariate statistical methods can be used to predict physical-chemical properties of petroleum fractions. It has been shown that this technique can be considered a potential alternative to the conventional standard methods having obtained very promising results.