Communication middleware for the future mobile internet

A evolução constante em novas tecnologias que providenciam suporte à forma como os nossos dispositivos se ligam, bem como a forma como utilizamos diferentes capacidades e serviços on-line, criou um conjunto sem precedentes de novos desafios que motivam o desenvolvimento de uma recente área de investigação, denominada de Internet Futura. Nesta nova área de investigação, novos aspectos arquiteturais estão ser desenvolvidos, os quais, através da re-estruturação de componentes nucleares subjacentesa que compõem a Internet, progride-a de uma forma capaz de não são fazer face a estes novos desafios, mas também de a preparar para os desafios de amanhã. Aspectos chave pertencendo a este conjunto de desafios são os ambientes de rede heterogéneos compostos por diferentes tipos de redes de acesso, a cada vez maior mudança do tráfego peer-to-peer (P2P) como o tipo de tráfego mais utilizado na Internet, a orquestração de cenários da Internet das Coisas (IoT) que exploram mecanismos de interação Maquinaa-Maquina (M2M), e a utilização de mechanismos centrados na informação (ICN). Esta tese apresenta uma nova arquitetura capaz de simultaneamente fazer face a estes desafios, evoluindo os procedimentos de conectividade e entidades envolvidas, através da adição de uma camada de middleware, que age como um mecanismo de gestão de controlo avançado. Este mecanismo de gestão de controlo aproxima as entidades de alto nível (tais como serviços, aplicações, entidades de gestão de mobilidade, operações de encaminhamento, etc.) com as componentes das camadas de baixo nível (por exemplo, camadas de ligação, sensores e atuadores), permitindo uma otimização conjunta dos procedimentos de ligação subjacentes. Os resultados obtidos não só sublinham a flexibilidade dos mecanismos que compoem a arquitetura, mas também a sua capacidade de providenciar aumentos de performance quando comparados com outras soluÇÕes de funcionamento especÍfico, enquanto permite um maior leque de cenáios e aplicações.

On the application of optimal control techniques in lossy fieldbuses

The performance of real-time networks is under continuous improvement as a result of several trends in the digital world. However, these tendencies not only cause improvements, but also exacerbates a series of unideal aspects of real-time networks such as communication latency, jitter of the latency and packet drop rate. This Thesis focuses on the communication errors that appear on such realtime networks, from the point-of-view of automatic control. Specifically, it investigates the effects of packet drops in automatic control over fieldbuses, as well as the architectures and optimal techniques for their compensation. Firstly, a new approach to address the problems that rise in virtue of such packet drops, is proposed. This novel approach is based on the simultaneous transmission of several values in a single message. Such messages can be from sensor to controller, in which case they are comprised of several past sensor readings, or from controller to actuator in which case they are comprised of estimates of several future control values. A series of tests reveal the advantages of this approach. The above-explained approach is then expanded as to accommodate the techniques of contemporary optimal control. However, unlike the aforementioned approach, that deliberately does not send certain messages in order to make a more efficient use of network resources; in the second case, the techniques are used to reduce the effects of packet losses. After these two approaches that are based on data aggregation, it is also studied the optimal control in packet dropping fieldbuses, using generalized actuator output functions. This study ends with the development of a new optimal controller, as well as the function, among the generalized functions that dictate the actuator’s behaviour in the absence of a new control message, that leads to the optimal performance. The Thesis also presents a different line of research, related with the output oscillations that take place as a consequence of the use of classic co-design techniques of networked control. The proposed algorithm has the goal of allowing the execution of such classical co-design algorithms without causing an output oscillation that increases the value of the cost function. Such increases may, under certain circumstances, negate the advantages of the application of the classical co-design techniques. A yet another line of research, investigated algorithms, more efficient than contemporary ones, to generate task execution sequences that guarantee that at least a given number of activated jobs will be executed out of every set composed by a predetermined number of contiguous activations. This algorithm may, in the future, be applied to the generation of message transmission patterns in the above-mentioned techniques for the efficient use of network resources. The proposed task generation algorithm is better than its predecessors in the sense that it is capable of scheduling systems that cannot be scheduled by its predecessor algorithms. The Thesis also presents a mechanism that allows to perform multi-path routing in wireless sensor networks, while ensuring that no value will be counted in duplicate. Thereby, this technique improves the performance of wireless sensor networks, rendering them more suitable for control applications. As mentioned before, this Thesis is centered around techniques for the improvement of performance of distributed control systems in which several elements are connected through a fieldbus that may be subject to packet drops. The first three approaches are directly related to this topic, with the first two approaching the problem from an architectural standpoint, whereas the third one does so from more theoretical grounds. The fourth approach ensures that the approaches to this and similar problems that can be found in the literature that try to achieve goals similar to objectives of this Thesis, can do so without causing other problems that may invalidate the solutions in question. Then, the thesis presents an approach to the problem dealt with in it, which is centered in the efficient generation of the transmission patterns that are used in the aforementioned approaches.

Electromechanical properties of engineered lead free potassium sodium niobate based materials

K0.5Na0.5NbO3 (KNN), is the most promising lead free material for substituting lead zirconate titanate (PZT) which is still the market leader used for sensors and actuators. To make KNN a real competitor, it is necessary to understand and to improve its properties. This goal is pursued in the present work via different approaches aiming to study KNN intrinsic properties and then to identify appropriate strategies like doping and texturing for designing better KNN materials for an intended application. Hence, polycrystalline KNN ceramics (undoped, non-stoichiometric; NST and doped), high-quality KNN single crystals and textured KNN based ceramics were successfully synthesized and characterized in this work. Polycrystalline undoped, non-stoichiometric (NST) and Mn doped KNN ceramics were prepared by conventional ceramic processing. Structure, microstructure and electrical properties were measured. It was observed that the window for mono-phasic compositions was very narrow for both NST ceramics and Mn doped ceramics. For NST ceramics the variation of A/B ratio influenced the polarization (P-E) hysteresis loop and better piezoelectric and dielectric responses could be found for small stoichiometry deviations (A/B = 0.97). Regarding Mn doping, as compared to undoped KNN which showed leaky polarization (P-E) hysteresis loops, B-site Mn doped ceramics showed a well saturated, less-leaky hysteresis loop and a significant properties improvement. Impedance spectroscopy was used to assess the role of Mn and a relation between charge transport – defects and ferroelectric response in K0.5Na0.5NbO3 (KNN) and Mn doped KNN ceramics could be established. At room temperature the conduction in KNN which is associated with holes transport is suppressed by Mn doping. Hence Mn addition increases the resistivity of the ceramic, which proved to be very helpful for improving the saturation of the P-E loop. At high temperatures the conduction is dominated by the motion of ionized oxygen vacancies whose concentration increases with Mn doping. Single crystals of potassium sodium niobate (KNN) were grown by a modified high temperature flux method. A boron-modified flux was used to obtain the crystals at a relatively low temperature. XRD, EDS and ICP analysis proved the chemical and crystallographic quality of the crystals. The grown KNN crystals exhibit higher dielectric permittivity (29,100) at the tetragonal-to-cubic phase transition temperature, higher remnant polarization (19.4 μC/cm2) and piezoelectric coefficient (160 pC/N) when compared with the standard KNN ceramics. KNN single crystals domain structure was characterized for the first time by piezoforce response microscopy. It could be observed that <001> - oriented potassium sodium niobate (KNN) single crystals reveal a long range ordered domain pattern of parallel 180° domains with zig-zag 90° domains. From the comparison of KNN Single crystals to ceramics, It is argued that the presence in KNN single crystal (and absence in KNN ceramics) of such a long range order specific domain pattern that is its fingerprint accounts for the improved properties of single crystals. These results have broad implications for the expanded use of KNN materials, by establishing a relation between the domain patterns and the dielectric and ferroelectric response of single crystals and ceramics and by indicating ways of achieving maximised properties in KNN materials. Polarized Raman analysis of ferroelectric potassium sodium niobate (K0.5Na0.5)NbO3 (KNN) single crystals was performed. For the first time, an evidence is provided that supports the assignment of KNN single crystals structure to the monoclinic symmetry at room temperature. Intensities of A′, A″ and mixed A′+A″ phonons have been theoretically calculated and compared with the experimental data in dependence of crystal rotation, which allowed the precise determination of the Raman tensor coefficients for (non-leaking) modes in monoclinic KNN. In relation to the previous literature, this study clarifies that assigning monoclinic phase is more suitable than the orthorhombic one. In addition, this study is the basis for non-destructive assessments of domain distribution by Raman spectroscopy in KNN-based lead-free ferroelectrics with complex structures. Searching a deeper understanding of the electrical behaviour of both KNN single crystal and polycrystalline materials for the sake of designing optimized KNN materials, a comparative study at the level of charge transport and point defects was carried out by impedance spectroscopy. KNN single crystals showed lower conductivity than polycrystals from room temperature up to 200 ºC, but above this temperature polycrystalline KNN displays lower conductivity. The low temperature (T < 200 ºC) behaviour reflects the different processing conditions of both ceramics and single crystals, which account for less defects prone to charge transport in the case of single crystals. As temperature increases (T > 200 ºC) single crystals become more conductive than polycrystalline samples, in which grain boundaries act as barriers to charge transport. For even higher temperatures the conductivity difference between both is increased due to the contribution of ionic conduction in single crystals. Indeed the values of activation energy calculated to the high temperature range (T > 300 ºC) were 1.60 and 0.97 eV, confirming the charge transport due to ionic conduction and ionized oxygen vacancies in single crystals and polycrystalline KNN, respectively. It is suggested that single crystals with low defects content and improved electromechanical properties could be a better choice for room temperature applications, though at high temperatures less conductive ceramics may be the choice, depending on the targeted use. Aiming at engineering the properties of KNN polycrystals towards the performance of single crystals, the preparation and properties study of (001) – oriented (K0.5Na0.5)0.98Li0.02NbO3 (KNNL) ceramics obtained by templated grain growth (TGG) using KNN single crystals as templates was undertaken. The choice of KNN single crystals templates is related with their better properties and to their unique domain structure which were envisaged as a tool for templating better properties in KNN ceramics too. X-ray diffraction analysis revealed for the templated ceramics a monoclinic structure at room temperature and a Lotgering factor (f) of 40% which confirmed texture development. These textured ceramics exhibit a long range ordered domain pattern consisting of 90º and 180º domains, similar to the one observed in the single crystals. Enhanced dielectric (13017 at TC), ferroelectric (2Pr = 42.8 μC/cm2) and piezoelectric (d33 = 280 pC/N) properties are observed for textured KNNL ceramics as compared to the randomly oriented ones. This behaviour is suggested to be due to the long range ordered domain patterns observed in the textured ceramics. The obtained results as compared with the data previously reported on texture KNN based ceramics confirm that superior properties were found due to ordered repeated domain pattern. This study provides an useful approach towards properties improvement of KNN-based piezoelectric ceramics. Overall, the present results bring a significant contribution to the pool of knowledge on the properties of sodium potassium niobate materials: a relation between the domain patterns and di-, ferro-, and piezo-electric response of single crystals and ceramics was demonstrated and ways of engineering maximised properties in KNN materials, for example by texturing were established. This contribution is envisaged to have broad implications for the expanded use of KNN over the alternative lead-based materials.