Oil and Dependency::The Case of Kazakhstan

Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the newly independent oil-rich country of Kazakhstan has become a major recipient of foreign direct investment (FDI). Although international organisations such as the IMF and UNCTAD have claimed that FDI could be considered an engine in the transition from state socialism and as a powerful force for integration of this region into the global economy; this investment also poses significant risks to Kazakhstan. These risks fall into two broad categories: The first category can be broadly described as issues associated with the “resource curse” or the “Dutch Disease”. The term Dutch Disease describes a situation where booming demand in oil exporting countries, due to high oil revenues, leads to shift of an economy’s productive resources from the tradeable sector to the non-tradeable sector. The second category is associated with the over-dependency of oil exporting countries on a relatively small number of large multinational corporations (MNCs). This over-dependency can lead to a situation where licenses and concessions are granted at less favourable conditions than if they were auctioned in an efficient market. Examining the licensing policy of the Kazakhstani Energy and Mineral Resource Ministry, this paper notes that the latter issue of over-dependency has become less of a risk due to deliberate efforts to diversify investment relationships. Notwithstanding this situation there is some evidence that it remains difficult for oil exporting nations such as Kazakhstan to ensure that oil revenues are channelled into sustainable economic development.

Analytical strategies for the early quality and safety assurance in the global feed chain. Approaches for nitrogen adulterants in soybean meal and mineral and transformer oils in vegetable oils.

In the past decade, several major food safety crises originated from problems with feed. Consequently, there is an urgent need for early detection of fraudulent adulteration and contamination in the feed chain. Strategies are presented for two specific cases, viz. adulterations of (i) soybean meal with melamine and other types of adulterants/contaminants and (ii) vegetable oils with mineral oil, transformer oil or other oils. These strategies comprise screening at the feed mill or port of entry with non-destructive spectroscopic methods (NIRS and Raman), followed by post-screening and confirmation in the laboratory with MS-based methods. The spectroscopic techniques are suitable for on-site and on-line applications. Currently they are suited to detect fraudulent adulteration at relatively high levels but not to detect low level contamination. The potential use of the strategies for non-targeted analysis is demonstrated.

Physico-geochemical and mineral composition of neem tree soils and relation to organic properties

The Neem tree, the oil of which has a long history of pesticide, fertilizer and medicinal use in India, has been studied extensively for its organic compounds. Here we present a physical, mineralogical and geochemical database resulting from the analyses of two Neem soil profiles (epipedons) in India. Neem tree derivatives are used in the manufacture of a variety of products, from anti-bacterial drugs and insecticides to fertilizers and animal feeds. A preliminary geochemical and mineralogical analysis of Neem soils is made to explore the potential for chemical links between Neem tree derivatives and soils. Physical soil characteristics, including colour, texture and clay mineralogy, suggest the two pedons formed under different hydrological regimes, and hence, are products of different leaching environments, one well-drained site, the other poorly drained. Geochemically, the two Neem soils exhibit similarities, with elevated concentrations of Th and rare earth elements. These elements are of interest because of their association with phosphates, especially monazite and apatite, and the potential link to fertilizer derivatives. Higher concentrations of trace elements in the soils may be linked to nutritional derivatives and to cell growth in the Neem tree.

Deactivation of Oxidation Catalysts by Oil-Derived Sulphur

The most common mode of deactivation suffered by catalysts fitted to two-stroke engines has traditionally been thermal degradation, or even meltdown, of the washcoat and substrate. The high temperatures experienced by these catalysts are caused by excessively high concentrations of HC and CO in the exhaust gas which are, in turn, caused by a rich AFR and the loss of neat fuel to the exhaust during the scavenging period. The effects of catalyst poisoning due to additives in the oil is often regarded as a secondary, or even negligible, deactivating mechanism in two-stroke catalysts and has therefore received little attention. However, with the introduction of direct in-cylinder fuel injection to some larger versions of this engine, the quantities of HC escaping to the exhaust can be reduced to levels similar to those found on four-stroke gasoline engines. Under these conditions, the effects of poisoning are much more significant to catalyst durability, particularly for crankcase scavenged derivatives which allow considerable quantities of oil to escape into the exhaust in a neat, or partially burned form. In this paper the effects of oil-derived sulphur on catalyst performance are examined using specialised test apparatus. The oil used throughout the study was formulated specifically for a two-stroke engine fitted with direct in-cylinder fuel injection. The sulphur content of this oil was 0.21% by mass and particular attention was paid to the role of this element in the resulting deactivation. The catalyst was also designed for two-stroke applications and contained a high palladium loading of 300g/ft3 (28g/l) to prolong the life of the catalyst. It was found that the sulphur caused permanent deactivation of the CO reaction and increased the light-off temperature by around 40oC after oiling for 60 hours. This deactivation was progressive and led to a reduction in surface area of the washcoat, particularly in the micropores of around 5Å diameter. By using a validated catalyst model the change in surface area of the precious metal was estimated. It was found that the simulated palladium surface area had to be reduced by a factor of around 7.5 to produce the light-off temperature of the deactivated catalyst. Conversely, the light-off temperature of the C3H6 reaction was barely affected by the deactivation.