Community pharmacists and people with dementia: a cross-sectional survey exploring experiences, attitudes, and knowledge of pain and its management

Objectives
To explore community pharmacists' experiences with and attitudes towards people with dementia, and to determine the knowledge they have about pain and its management in this patient population. 

Methods
A questionnaire comprising five sections, including the Approaches to Dementia Questionnaire, was mailed, on two occasions, during February and March 2011, to all community pharmacies in Northern Ireland (n=530). 

Results
The response rate was 34.3%. A greater proportion of pharmacists provided pharmaceutical care to people with dementia living at home (91.2%) than those living in care homes (40.1%). Respondents most frequently encountered queries relating to starting and stopping medications, compliance with medication, and availability of formulation types. The mean total score for the Approaches to Dementia Questionnaire measure was 72.8, indicating a positive attitude towards people with dementia, and respondents demonstrated a strong person-centred approach towards this patient population. The majority of respondents recognised the difficulty of assessing pain in people with dementia; however, younger pharmacists (p=0.041) and pharmacists who provided pharmaceutical care to people with dementia (p=0.012) were more likely to be aware of the pain assessment tools for use in people with dementia. Pharmacists appeared uncertain about how to appropriately manage pain in people with dementia.

Conclusions
The study has revealed that community pharmacists often encounter people with dementia, especially those living in their own homes, and they have positive attitudes towards the patient population. However, training in the assessment and management of pain in people with dementia must be developed to further improve their knowledge in this area. 

General practice-recorded depression and antidepressant use in young people with newly diagnosed Type 1 diabetes: a cohort study using the Clinical Practice Research Datalink

Aims - To investigate whether young people with Type 1 diabetes have an increased rate of depression andantidepressant use and whether their risk varies by age group, time from diabetes diagnosis, calendar period ofdiagnosis or complications status. Methods - A cohort of incident cases of patients with Type 1 diabetes diagnosed before 35 years of age (n = 5548) wasidentified within the Clinical Practice Research Datalink and individually age and sex matched with up to two controlsubjects without diabetes (n = 10 657). Patients with depression were identified through general practice-recordeddepression codes and antidepressant prescriptions. Cox regression models gave hazard ratios for depression in peoplewith Type 1 diabetes compared with control subjects. Results - People with Type 1 diabetes were twice as likely to have a record of antidepressant use and generalpractice-diagnosed depression as their matched control subjects (hazard ratio 2.08, 95% CI 1.73–2.50, P < 0.001).These associations varied by time from diagnosis, with marked increases observed within the first 5 years of diagnosis(hazard ratio 2.14, 95% CI 1.51–3.03, P < 0.001), and by age at diabetes diagnosis, with excesses noted even in the 10-to 19-year age group (hazard ratio 1.45, 95% CI 1.06–1.98, P = 0.02). Conclusions - This population-based study shows that people with Type 1 diabetes have higher rates of generalpractice-recorded depression and antidepressant use. The excess is present within 5 years of diabetes diagnosis,suggesting psychological input for patients is warranted in the early years of their condition.

Balls to the wall: How acoustic information from a ball in motion guides interceptive movement in people with Parkinson’s disease

Previous research has shown that Parkinson's disease (PD) patients can increase the speed of their movement when catching a moving ball compared to when reaching for a static ball (Majsak et al., 1998). A recent model proposed by Redgrave et al. (2010) explains this phenomenon with regard to the dichotomic organization of motor loops in the basal ganglia circuitry and the role of sensory micro-circuitries in the control of goal-directed actions. According to this model, external visual information that is relevant to the required movement can induce a switch from a habitual control of movement toward an externally-paced, goal-directed form of guidance, resulting in augmented motor performance (Bienkiewicz et al., 2013). In the current study, we investigated whether continuous acoustic information generated by an object in motion can enhance motor performance in an arm reaching task in a similar way to that observed in the studies of Majsak et al. (1998, 2008). In addition, we explored whether the kinematic aspects of the movement are regulated in accordance with time to arrival information generated by the ball's motion as it reaches the catching zone. A group of 7 idiopathic PD (6 male, 1 female) patients performed a ball-catching task where the acceleration (and hence ball velocity) was manipulated by adjusting the angle of the ramp. The type of sensory information (visual and/or auditory) specifying the ball's arrival at the catching zone was also manipulated. Our results showed that patients with PD demonstrate improved motor performance when reaching for a ball in motion, compared to when stationary. We observed how PD patients can adjust their movement kinematics in accordance with the speed of a moving target, even if vision of the target is occluded and patients have to rely solely on auditory information. We demonstrate that the availability of dynamic temporal information is crucial for eliciting motor improvements in PD. Furthermore, these effects appear independent from the sensory modality through-which the information is conveyed. 

Exploring the prevalence of and factors associated with pain: a cross-sectional study of community-dwelling people with dementia

Few pain studies have made community-dwelling people with dementia (PWD) their focus. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of pain among this patient population and to explore medication use. Moreover, we sought to investigate patient and caregiver variables associated with the presence of pain. Community-dwelling PWD and their caregivers were recruited between May 2009 and July 2012 from outpatient memory clinics in Northern Ireland to take part in a face-to-face structured interview with a researcher. Patients' cognitive status and presence of depression were established. A full medication history was taken. Both patients and caregivers were asked to rate patients' pain, at the time of the interview and on an average day, using a 7-point verbal descriptor scale. From the 206 patients who were eligible to take part, 75 patient-caregiver dyads participated in the study (participation rate = 36.4%). The majority of patients (92.0%) had dementia classed as mild or moderate. Pain was commonly reported among the sample, with 57.3% of patients and 70.7% of caregivers reporting patient pain on an average day. Significant differences were found between patients' and caregivers' reports of pain. Two-fifths of patients (40.0%) were prescribed analgesia. Antipsychotic, hypnotic and anxiolytic drug use was low, whereas antidepressant drugs were prescribed more commonly. Presence of pain was unaffected by dementia severity; however, the use of prescribed analgesic medication was a significant predictor of the presence of pain in these patients, whether reported by the patient or their caregiver 'right now' or 'on an average day' (P < 0.001). Patient and caregiver recruitment was challenging, and remains a barrier to research in this area in the future.

Antimicrobial resistance in the respiratory microbiota of people with cystic fibrosis

Cystic fibrosis is characterised by chronic polymicrobial infection and inflammation in the airways of patients. Antibiotic treatment regimens, targeting recognised pathogens, have substantially contributed to increased life expectancy of patients with this disease. Although the emergence of antimicrobial resistance and selection of highly antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains is of major concern, the clinical relevance in cystic fibrosis is yet to be defined. Resistance has been identified in recognised cystic fibrosis pathogens and in other bacteria (eg, Prevotella and Streptococcus spp) detected in the airway microbiota, but their role in the pathophysiology of infection and inflammation in chronic lung disease is unclear. Increased antibiotic resistance in cystic fibrosis might be attributed to a range of complex factors including horizontal gene transfer, hypoxia, and biofilm formation. Strategies to manage antimicrobial resistance consist of new antibiotics or localised delivery of antimicrobial agents, iron sequestration, inhibition of quorum-sensing, and resistome analysis. Determination of the contributions of every bacterial species to lung health or disease in cystic fibrosis might also have an important role in the management of antibiotic resistance. 

Pharmacological interventions for dementia in people with Down Syndrome (Protocol).

Background: People with Down syndrome are vulnerable to developing dementia at an earlier age than the general population. Alzheimer’s disease and cognitive decline in people with Down syndrome can place a significant burden on both the person with Down syndrome and their family and carers. Various pharmacological interventions, including donepezil, galantamine, memantine and rivastigmine, appear to have some effect in treating cognitive decline in people without Down syndrome, but their effectiveness for those with Down syndrome remains unclear. Objectives: To assess the effectiveness of anti-dementia pharmacological interventions and nutritional supplements for treating cognitive decline in people with Down syndrome. Search methods In January 2015, we searched CENTRAL, ALOIS (the Specialised Register of the Cochrane Dementia and Cognitive Improvement Group), Ovid MEDLINE, Embase, PsycINFO, seven other databases, and two trials registers. In addition, we checked the references of relevant reviews and studies and contacted study authors, other researchers and relevant drug manufacturers to identify additional studies. Selection criteria: Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of anti-dementia pharmacological interventions or nutritional supplements for adults (aged 18 years and older) with Down syndrome, in which treatment was administered and compared with either placebo or no treatment. Data collection and analysis Two review authors independently assessed the risk of bias of included trials and extracted the relevant data. Review authors contacted study authors to obtain missing information where necessaryMain results Only nine studies (427 participants) met the inclusion criteria for this review. Four of these (192 participants) assessed the effectiveness of donepezil, two (139 participants) assessed memantine, one (21 participants) assessed simvastatin, one study (35 participants) assessed antioxidants, and one study (40 participants) assessed acetyl-L-carnitine. Five studies focused on adults aged 45 to 55 years, while the remaining four studies focused on adults aged 20 to 29 years. Seven studies were conducted in either the USA or UK, one between Norway and the UK, and one in Japan. Follow-up periods in studies ranged from four weeks to two years. The reviewers judged all included studies to be at low or unclear risk of bias. Analyses indicate that for participants who received donepezil, scores in measures of cognitive functioning (standardised mean difference (SMD) 0.52, 95% confidence interval (CI) -0.27 to 1.13) and measures of behaviour (SMD 0.42, 95% CI -0.06 to 0.89) were similar to those who received placebo. However, participants who received donepezil were significantly more likely to experience an adverse event (odds ratio (OR) 0.32, 95% CI 0.16 to 0.62). The quality of this body of evidence was low. None of the included donepezil studies reported data for carer stress, institutional/home care, or death. For participants who received memantine, scores in measures of cognitive functioning (SMD 0.05, 95% CI -0.43 to 0.52), behaviour (SMD -0.17, 95% CI -0.46 to 0.11), and occurrence of adverse events (OR 0.45, 95% CI 0.18 to 1.17) were similar to those who received placebo. The quality of this body of evidence was low. None of the included memantine studies reported data for carer stress, institutional/home care, or death. Due to insufficient data, it was possible to provide a narrative account only of the outcomes for simvastatin, antioxidants, and acetylL-carnitine. Results from one pilot study suggest that participants who received simvastatin may have shown a slight improvement in cognitive measures. Authors’ conclusions Due to the low quality of the body of evidence in this review, it is difficult to draw conclusions about the effectiveness of any pharmacological intervention for cognitive decline in people with Down syndrome.

Genetic risk factors affecting mitochondrial function are associated with kidney disease in people with Type 1 diabetes

AIM: To evaluate the association with diabetic kidney disease of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that may contribute to mitochondrial dysfunction.

METHODS: The mitochondrial genome and 1039 nuclear genes that are integral to mitochondrial function were investigated using a case (n=823 individuals with diabetic kidney disease) vs. control (n=903 individuals with diabetes and no renal disease) approach. All people included in the analysis were of white European origin and were diagnosed with Type 1 diabetes before the age of 31 years. Replication was conducted in 5093 people with similar phenotypes to those of the discovery collection. Association analyses were performed using the plink genetic analysis toolset, with adjustment for relevant covariates.

RESULTS: A total of 25 SNPs were evaluated in the mitochondrial genome, but none were significantly associated with diabetic kidney disease or end-stage renal disease. A total of 38 SNPs in nuclear genes influencing mitochondrial function were nominally associated with diabetic kidney disease and 16 SNPS were associated with end-stage renal disease, secondary to diabetic kidney disease, with meta-analyses confirming the same direction of effect. Three independent signals (seven SNPs) were common to the replication data for both phenotypes with Type 1 diabetes and persistent proteinuria or end-stage renal disease.

CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that SNPs in nuclear genes that influence mitochondrial function are significantly associated with diabetic kidney disease in a white European population

I can hear once more: The role of the Anaesthetic Nurse specialist in Cochlear implantation for people with long term deafness

This paper examines the role of the Anaesthetic Nuse Specialist(ANS) in the context of innovative cochlear implant surgery which restores hearing to those with long term deafness. The specific focus is patient centered care during the long surgery under local anaestha when the patient is awake.
It is crucial during this surgery that the patient remains still, relaxed and calm, the ANS has been particularly creative using communication cards and tablets to allow patients to write questions and the nurse to answer. The writers capture the unique moment when someone with long term hearing can hear, and the ensuing emotion from the patient and theatre team.