Morphology and Anatomy of Stem Mines in Cipocereus minensis (Wender.) Ritter (Cactaceae), an Endemic Species to Eastern Brazil

Plant mines are structures with the form of a cavity caused by consumption of host plant tissue by the insect's miner larvae. Plant mines are more common in leaves, but in Cipocereus minensis, a species in which the leaves are modified spines, the miner activity is restricted to the stem. The aim of this paper was to document the morphological and anatomical differences in the infected and uninfected stems of C. minensis due to the feeding habit of the mining agent. Fresh tissue samples of non-mined and mined young stem of C minensis were collected and examined in transverse sections. We hypothesize that the infection begins following mating when the females scratch the surface of the stem or while they feed on fruits and lay eggs, which subsequently develop into larvae, invading the cactus stem. The insect's miner larvae had mostly consumed the parenchyma tissue towards the center of the stem, and periderm formed along the entire path of the insect. This meristematic tissue or "wound periderm" is a common response for compartmentalization to isolate the damaged tissue, in this case the incubating chamber, in which the eggs will be placed. There were no signs of consumption of vascular tissue in the infested samples, further suggesting a compartmentalized infestation. The nest chamber was found in the stem pith region, with periderm surrounding an insect's miner pupa inside identified as a member of the Cerambycidae. The mining insect depends on a host plant to complete the life cycle; however, the nature of this partnership and the long-term effects of the insect on the plant tissue are unknown. The complex mechanisms by which herbivorous insects control the morphogenesis of the plant host are discussed. We propose that C. minensis has a recognition system to identify insect attack and evaluate the effectiveness of early response triggering compartmentalized defense mechanisms by protecting the injured area with a new layer of periderm.

Feasibility of Using a Caribbean Screwworm for SIT Campaigns in Brazil

The screwworm, Cochliomyia hominivorax (Coquerel), remains one of the most damaging parasites of livestock in South America, causing millions of dollars in annual losses to producers. Recently, South American countries demonstrated interest in controlling this pest using the Sterile Insect Technique, and a pilot-project was conducted near the Brazil-Uruguay border in 2009. Since molecular studies have suggested the existence of C. hominivorax regional groups, crossing tests were conducted to evaluate mating competitiveness, mating preference and reproductive compatibility between a C. hominivorax strain from the Caribbean (Jamaica-06) and one from Brazil. Mating rates between Jamaican males and Brazilian females ranged between 82 and 100%, and each male inseminated from 3.3 to 3.95 females. Sterile males, regardless of the strain, competed equally against the fertile males for Brazilian females. Jamaican sterile males and Brazilian fertile males mated randomly with fertile or sterile females. No evidence of genetic incompatibility or hybrid dysgenesis was found in the hybridization crosses. Mating barriers should not compromise the use of Jamaican sterile males for Sterile Insect Technique campaigns in Brazil.

DEVELOPMENT OF MICROSATELLITE PRIMERS FOR JATROPHA CURCAS (EUPHORBIACEAE) AND TRANSFERABILITY TO CONGENERS

Premise of the study: Microsatellite primers were developed for Jatropha curcas (Euphorbiaceae), a tree species with large potential for biofuel production, to investigate its natural genetic diversity and mating system to facilitate the establishment of tree improvement and conservation programs. Methods and Results: Using a protocol for genomic library enrichment, 104 clones containing 195 repeat motifs were identified. Primer pairs were developed for 40 microsatellite loci and validated in 41 accessions of J. curcas from six provenances. Nine loci were polymorphic revealing from two to eight alleles per locus, and six primers were able to amplify alleles in the congeners J. podagrica, J. pohliana, and J. gossypifolia, but not in other Euphorbiaceae species, such as Hevea brasiliensis, Manihot esculenta, or Ricinus communis. Conclusions: The primers developed here revealed polymorphic loci that are suitable for genetic diversity and structure, mating system, and gene flow studies in J. curcas, and some congeners.

Flexible and conservative features of social systems in tufted capuchin monkeys: comparing the socioecology of Sapajus libidinosus and Sapajus nigritus

Socioecological models assume that primates adapt their social behavior to ecological conditions, and predict that food availability and distribution, predation risk and risk of infanticide by males affect patterns of social organization, social structure and mating system of primates. However, adaptability and variation of social behavior may be constrained by conservative adaptations and by phylogenetic inertia. The comparative study of closely related species can help to identify the relative contribution of ecological and of genetic determinants to primate social systems. We compared ecological features and social behavior of two species of the genus Sapajus, S. nigritus in Carlos Botelho State Park, an area of Atlantic Forest in Sao Paulo state, and S. libidinosus in Fazenda Boa Vista, a semi-arid habitat in Piaui state, Brazil. S. libidinosus perceived higher predation risk and fed on clumped, high quality, and usurpable resources (fruits) all year round, whereas S. nigritus perceived lower predation risk and relied on evenly distributed, low-quality food sources (leaves) during periods of fruit shortage. As predicted by socioecology models, S. libidinosus females were philopatric and established linear and stable dominance hierarchies, coalitions, and grooming relationships. S. nigritus females competed less often, and could transfer between groups, which might explain the lack of coalitions and grooming bonds among them. Both populations presented similar group size and composition and the same polygynous mating system. The species differed from each other in accordance with differences in the characteristics of their main food sources, as predicted by socioecological models, suggesting that phylogenetic inertia does not constrain social relationships established among female Sapajus. The similarity in mating systems indicates that this element of the social system is not affected by ecological variables and thus, is a more conservative behavioral feature of the genus Sapajus. Am. J. Primatol. 74:315331, 2012. (c) 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

It is a matter of taste: chemical signals mediate nuptial gift acceptance in a neotropical spider

Nuptial gift offering is a courtship trait found among several insect orders and some spider families. Recent studies indicate that this gift-giving behavior in spiders represents the male mating effort acting on female receptivity through a mechanism of foraging motivation. However, little attention has been given to the sensory channels that are influencing female acceptance. To understand the role of these sensory channels in female perception of a nuptial gift, we focused on the nuptial gift of the neotropical spider Paratrechalea ornata (Araneae, Trechaleidae). The nuptial gift of this species is composed of a prey item wrapped in silk, and previous works suggest that visual and/or chemical cues may be involved in inducing female grasping behavior. We isolated sensory channels using mimetic nuptial gifts (artificial items) or by manipulating real nuptial gifts. Isolated visual signals were not responsible for female acceptance, whereas chemical signals found within the nuptial gift silk layer induced female acceptance. Our findings clearly indicate that a chemical signal located in the silk of the nuptial gift is the main attractant channel, and we formulated 2 hypotheses to explain the mechanisms of action in the female sensory system. We also discuss the consequences of such signaling over female acceptance.

DEVELOPMENT OF MICROSATELLITE MARKERS FOR ANADENANTHERA COLUBRINA (LEGUMINOSAE), A NEOTROPICAL TREE SPECIES

Premise of the study: We developed and characterized nuclear microsatellite markers for Anadenanthera colubrina, a tropical tree species widely distributed in South America. Methods and Results: Leaf samples of mature A. colubrina trees, popularly called "angico," were collected from an area that is greatly impacted by agricultural practices in the region of Ribeirao Preto in Sao Paulo State in southeastern Brazil. Twenty simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers were developed, 14 of which had polymorphic loci. A total of 96 alleles were detected with an average of 6.86 alleles per polymorphic locus. The expected heterozygosity, calculated at polymorphic loci, ranged from 0.18 to 0.83. Finally, we demonstrated that 18 loci were cross-amplified in A. peregrina. Conclusions: A total of 14 polymorphic markers suggest a high potential for genetic diversity, gene flow, and mating system analyses in A. colubrina.

Availability of a rich source of sodium during the perinatal period programs the fluid balance restoration pattern in adult offspring

Osmoregulatory mechanisms can be vulnerable to electrolyte and/or endocrine environmental changes during the perinatal period, differentially programming the developing offspring and affecting them even in adulthood. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether availability of hypertonic sodium solution during the perinatal period may induce a differential programming in adult offspring osmoregulatory mechanisms. With this aim, we studied water and sodium intake after Furosemide-sodium depletion in adult offspring exposed to hypertonic sodium solution from 1 week before mating until postnatal day 28 of the offspring, used as a perinatal manipulation model [PM-Na group]. In these animals, we also identified the cell population groups in brain nuclei activated by Furosemide-sodium depletion treatment, analyzing the spatial patterns of Fos and Fos-vasopressin immunoreactivity. In sodium depleted rats, sodium and water intake were significantly lower in the PM-Na group vs. animals without access to hypertonic sodium solution [PM-Ctrol group]. Interestingly, when comparing the volumes consumed of both solutions in each PM group, our data show the expected significant differences between both solutions ingested in the PM-Ctrol group, which makes an isotonic cocktail: however, in the PM-Na group there were no significant differences in the volumes of both solutions consumed after Furosemide-sodium depletion, and therefore the sodium concentration of total fluid ingested by this group was significantly higher than that in the PM-Ctrol group. With regard to brain Fos immunoreactivity, we observed that Furosemide-sodium depletion in the PM-Na group induced a higher number of activated cells in the subfornical organ, ventral subdivision of the paraventricular nucleus and vasopressinergic neurons of the supraoptic nucleus than in the PM-Ctrol animals. Moreover, along the brainstem, we found a decreased number of sodium depletion-activated cells within the nucleus of the solitary tract of the PM-Na group. Our data indicate that early sodium availability induces a long-term effect on fluid drinking and on the cell activity of brain nuclei involved in the control of hydromineral balance. These results also suggest that availability of a rich source of sodium during the perinatal period may provoke a larger anticipatory response in the offspring, activating the vasopressinergic system and reducing thirst after water and sodium depletion, as a result of central osmosensitive mechanism alterations. (C) 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

How promising is Lasioseius floridensis as a control agent of Polyphagotarsonemus latus?

The blattisociid mite Lasioseius floridensis Berlese was found associated with the broad mite, Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Banks), on gerbera leaves in Mogi das Cruzes, State of Sao Paulo, Brazil. Blattisociid mites are not common on aerial plant parts, except under high air humidity levels. Some Lasioseius species have been mentioned as effective control agents of rice pest mites, but nothing is known about the biology of L. floridensis. The objective of this study was to evaluate whether the observed co-occurrence of L. floridensis and P. latus was just occasional or whether the latter could be important as food source for the former, assumed by laboratory evaluation of the ability of the predator to maintain itself, reproduce and develop on that prey. Biological parameters of L. floridensis were compared when exposed to P. latus and to other items as food. The study showed that mating is a pre-requisite for L. floridensis to oviposit and that oviposition rate was much higher on the soil nematode Rhabditella axei (Cobbold) (Rhabditidae) than on P. latus. Ovipositon on the acarid mite Tyrophagus putrescentiae (Schrank) was about the same as on P. latus, but it was nearly zero when the predator was fed the fungi Aspergillus flavus Link or Penicillium sp., or cattail (Typha sp.) pollen. Survivorship was higher in the presence of pollen and lower in the presence of A. flavus or Penicillium sp. than in the absence of those types of food. Life table parameters indicated that the predator performed much better on R. axei than on P. latus. To evaluate the potential effect of L. floridensis as predator of P. latus, complementary studies are warranted to determine the frequency of migration of L. floridensis to aerial plant parts, when predation on P. latus could occur.

Comparison of microsatellites and isozymes in genetic diversity studies of Oryza glumaepatula (Poaceae) populations

The study of the genetic structure of wild plant populations is essential for their management and conservation. Several DNA markers have been used in such studies, as well as isozyme markers. In order to provide a better comprehension of the results obtained and a comparison between markers which will help choose tools for future studies in natural populations of Oryza glumaepatula, a predominantly autogamous species, this study used both isozymes and microsatellites to assess the genetic diversity and genetic structure of 13 populations, pointing to similarities and divergences of each marker, and evaluating the relative importance of the results for studies of population genetics and conservation. A bulk sample for each population was obtained, by sampling two to three seeds of each plant, up to a set of 50 seeds. Amplified products of eight SSR loci were electrophoresed on non-denaturing polyacrylamide gels, and the fragments were visualized using silver staining procedure. Isozyme analyses were conducted in polyacrylamide gels, under a discontinuous system, using six enzymatic loci. SSR loci showed higher mean levels of genetic diversity (A=2.83, p=0.71, A(P)=3.17, H-o=0.081, H-e=0.351) than isozyme loci (A=1.20, p=0.20, A(P)=1.38, H-o=0.006, H-e=0.056). Interpopulation genetic differentiation detected by SSR loci (R-ST=0.631, equivalent to F-ST=0.533) was lower than that obtained with isozymes (F-ST=0.772). However, both markers showed high deviation from Hardy-Weinberg expectations (F-IS=0.744 and 0.899, respectively for SSR and isozymes). The mean apparent outcrossing rate for SSR ((t) over bar (a)=0.14) was higher than that obtained using isozymes ((t) over bar (a)=0.043), although both markers detected lower levels of outcrossing in Amazonia compared to the Pantanal. The migrant number estimation was also higher for SSR (Nm=0.219) than isozymes (Nm=0.074), although a small number for both markers was expected due to the mode of reproduction of this species, defined as mixed with predominance of self fertilization. No correlation was obtained between genetic and geographic distances with SSR, but a positive correlation was found between genetic and geographic distances with isozymes. We conclude that these markers are divergent in detecting genetic diversity parameters in O. glumaepatula and that microsatellites are powerful for detecting information at the intra-population level, while isozymes are more powerful for inter-population diversity, since clustering of populations agreed with the expectations based on the geographic distribution of the populations using this marker. Rev. Biol. Trop. 60 (4): 1463-1478. Epub 2012 December 01.

New records of the harlequin frog Atelopus nahumae RUIZ-CARRANZA, ARDILA-ROBAYO & HERNANDEZ-CAMACHO, 1994, in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Colombia), with notes of its distribution (Anura: Bufonidae)

The known distribution of the harlequin frog, Atelopus nahumae RUIZ-CARRANZA, ARDILA-ROBAYO & HERNANDEZ-CAMACHO, 1994, is reported along with three new locality records in the northwestern Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Colombia). In the new localities, observations were made on the frog's mating behavior. This report adds the Cordoba River Basin, another high valley of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, to the known range of A. nahumae. Nevertheless, the general distribution of the species in this region is largely unknown.

Cryptic Species of the Anastrepha fraterculus Complex (Diptera: Tephritidae): A Multivariate Approach for the Recognition of South American Morphotypes

Although a large amount of data have been published in past years on the taxonomic status of the Anastrepha fraterculus (Wiedemann) species complex, there is still a need to know how many species this complex comprises, the distribution of each one, and their distinguishing features. In this study, we assessed the morphometric variability of 32 populations from the A. fraterculus complex, located in major biogeographical areas from the Neotropics. Multivariate techniques for analysis were applied to the measurements of 21 variables referring to the mesonotum, aculeus, and wing. For the first time, our results identified the presence of seven distinct morphotypes within this species complex. According to the biogeographical areas, populations occurring in the Mesoamerican dominion (Mexico, Guatemala, and Panama) were clustered within a single natural entity labeled as the "Mexican" morphotype; whereas in the northwestern South American dominion, samples fell into three distinct groups: the "Venezuelan" morphotype with a single population from the Caribbean lowlands of Venezuela, the "Andean" morphotype from the highlands of Venezuela and Colombia, and the third group or "Peruvian" morphotype comprised the samples from the Pacific coastal lowlands of Ecuador and Peru. Three additional groups were identified from the Chacoan and Paranaense sub-regions: the morphotype "Brazilian-1" was recognized as including the Argentinean samples with most pertaining to Brazil, and widely distributed in these biogeographical areas; the morphotype "Brazilian-2" was recognized as including two samples from the state of Sao Paulo (Ilha-Bela and Sao Sebastiao); whereas the morphotype "Brazilian-3" included a single population from Botucatu (state of Sao Paulo). Based on data published by previous authors showing genetic and karyotypic differentiation, as well as reproductive isolation, we have concluded that such morphotypes indeed represent natural groups and distinct taxonomic entities.

Genital morphology of the male South American fur seal (Arctocephalus australis) and biological implications

Male capacity for spreading genes to a great number of descendents and to determine population dynamics depend directly on the genital organs. Morphological studies in pinnipeds are scarce and the functional meaning of some characteristics has never been discussed. We hypothesized that Arctocephalus australis (A. australis) shows morphophysiological adaptations in order to guarantee the perpetuation of the species in the unique annual mating season. Seven males, dead from natural causes, had their genital organs collected and fixed for morphological description. Some features differ from other described mammalian males and are closely related to the biology and reproductive cycle of this species, as the scrotal epidermis, absence of glandular portion in the ductus deferens and spermatogenic epithelium suggest a recrudescent testis period. The corona glandis exhibits a singular arrangement: its erectile border looks like a formation of petals and its association with the os penis gives a "lily-flower" form to this region. We propose the name margo petaliformis to this particular erectile border of the corona glandis because of its similarity to a flower corola. The male genital organs of A. australis show morphological features compatible with adaptation to environment requirements and reproductive efficiency.

The evolutionary implications of hemipenial morphology of rattlesnake Crotalus durissus terrificus (Laurent, 1768) (Serpentes: Viperidae: Crotalinae)

Most amniotes vertebrates have an intromittent organ to deliver semen. The reptile Sphenodon and most birds lost the ancestral penis and developed a cloaca-cloaca mating. Known as hemipenises, the copulatory organ of Squamata shows unique features between the amniotes intromittent organ. They are the only paired intromittent organs across amniotes and are fully inverted and encapsulated in the tail when not in use. The histology and ultrastructure of the hemipenes of Crotalus durissus rattlesnake is described as the evolutionary implications of the main features discussed. The organization of hemipenis of Crotalus durissus terrificus in two concentric corpora cavernosa is similar to other Squamata but differ markedly from the organization of the penis found in crocodilians, testudinata, birds and mammals. Based on the available data, the penis of the ancestral amniotes was made of connective tissue and the incorporation of smooth muscle in the framework of the sinusoids occurred independently in mammals and Crotalus durissus. The propulsor action of the muscle retractor penis basalis was confirmed and therefore the named should be changed to musculus hemipenis propulsor.The retractor penis magnus found in Squamata has no homology to the retractor penis of mammals, although both are responsible for the retraction of the copulatory organ

Morphometric analysis of fetal development of Cavia porcellus (Linnaeus, 1758) by ultrasonography: pilot study

Measurements on the growth process and placental development of the embryo and fetuses of Cavia porcellus were carried out using ultrasonography. Embryo, fetus, and placenta were monitored from Day 15 after mating day to the end of gestation. Based on linear and quadratic regressions, the following morphometric analysis showed a good indicator of the gestational age: placental diameter, biparietal diameter, renal length, and crown rump. The embryonic cardiac beat was first detected at an average of 22.5 days. The placental diameter showed constant increase from beginning of gestation then remained to term and presented a quadratic correlation with gestational age (r2 = 0.89). Mean placental diameter at the end of pregnancy was 3.5 ± 0.23 cm. By Day 30, it was possible to measure biparietal diameter, which followed a linear pattern of increase up to the end of gestation (r2 = 0.95). Mean biparietal diameter in the end of pregnancy was 1.94 ± 0.03 cm. Kidneys were firstly observed on Day 35 as hyperechoic structures without the distinction of medullar and cortical layers, thus the regression model equation between kidney length and gestational age presents a quadratic relationship (r2 = 0.7). The crown rump presented a simple linear growth, starting from 15 days of gestation, displaying a high correlation with the gestational age (r2 = 0.9). The offspring were born after an average gestation of 61.3 days. In this study, we conclude that biparietal diameter, placental diameter, and crown rump are adequate predictive parameters of gestational age in guinea pigs because they present high correlation index.