The utilization of waste date seed as bio-oil and activated carbon by pyrolysis process

The renovation of biomass waste in the form of date seed waste into activated carbon and biofuel by fixed bed pyrolysis reactor has been focused in this study to obtain gaseous, liquid, and solid products. The date seed in particle form is pyrolysed in an externally heated fixed bed reactor with nitrogen as the carrier gas. The reactor is heated from 400◦C to 600◦C. A maximum liquid yield of 50wt.% and char of 30wt.% are obtained at a reactor bed temperature of 500◦C with a running time of 120 minutes. The oil is found to possess favorable flash point and reasonable density and viscosity. The higher calorific value is found to be 28.636 MJ/kg which is significantly higher than other biomass derived. Decolonization of 85–97% is recorded for the textile effluent and 75–90% for the tannery effluent, in all cases decreasing with temperature increase. Good adsorption capacity of the prepared activated carbon in case of diluted textile and tannery effluent was found.

Fixed bed pyrolysis of date seed waste for liquid oil production

The conversion of biomass waste in the form of date seed into pyrolysis oil by fixed bed pyrolysis reactor has been taken into consideration in this study. A fixed bed pyrolysis has been designed and fabricated for obtaining liquid fuel from these date seeds. The major component of the system are fixed bed pyrolysis reactor, liquid condenser and liquid collector. The date seed in particle form is pyrolysed in an externally heated 7.6 cm diameter and 46 cm high fixed bed reactor with nitrogen as the carrier gas. The reactor is heated by means of a biomass source cylindrical heater from 4000C to 6000C. The products are oil, char and gas. The reactor bed temperature, running time and feed particle size are considered as process parameters. The parameters are found to influence the product yield significantly. A maximum liquid yield of 50 wt.% is obtained at a reactor bed temperature of 5000 C for a feed size volume of 0.11- 0.20 cm3 with a running time of 120 minutes. The pyrolysis oil obtained at this optimum process conditions are analyzed for some fuel properties and compared with some other biomass derived pyrolysis oils and also with conventional fuels. The oil is found to possess favorable flash point and reasonable density and viscosity. The higher calorific value is found to be 28.636 MJ/kg which is significantly higher than other biomass derived pyrolysis oils.

Design and construction of fixed bed pyrolysis system and plum seed pyrolysis for bio-oil production

This work investigated the production of bio oil from plum seed (Zyziphus jujuba) by fixed bed pyrolysis technology. A fixed bed pyrolysis system has been designed and fabricated for production of bio oil. The major components of the system are: fixed bed reactor, liquid condenser and liquid collector. Nitrogen gas was used to maintain the inert atmosphere in the reactor where the pyrolysis reaction takes place. The feedstock considered in this study is plum seed as it is available waste material in Bangladesh. The reactor is heated by means of a cylindrical biomass external heater. Rice husk was used as the energy source. The products are oil, char and gas. The parameters varied are reactor bed temperature, running time and feed particle size. The parameters are found to influence the product yields significantly. The maximum liquid yield of 39 wt% at 5200C for a feed particle size of 2.36-4.75 mm and a gas flow rate of 8 liter/min with a running time of 120 minute. The pyrolysis oil obtained at these optimum process conditions are analyzed for some of their properties as an alternative fuel. The density of the liquid was closer with diesel. The viscosity of the plum seed liquid was lower than that of the conventional fuels. The calorific value of the pyrolysis oil is one half of the diesel fuel.

Pyrolysis decomposition of mahogony seeds (Swietenia macrophylla) for alternative fuel oil

A fixed bed pyrolysis has been designed and fabricated for obtaining liquid fuel from Mahogany seeds. The major components of the system are fixed bed pyrolysis reactor, liquid condenser and liquid collectors. The Mahogany seed in particle form is pyrolysed in an externally heated 10 cm diameter and 36 cm high fixed bed reactor with nitrogen as the carrier gas. The reactor is heated by means of a biomass source cylindrical heater from 450oC to 600oC. The products are oil, char and gas. The reactor bed temperature, running time and feed particle size are considered as process parameters. A maximum liquid yield of 54wt% of biomass feed is obtained with particle size of 1.18 mm at a reactor bed temperature of 5500C with a running time of 90 minutes. The oil is found to possess favorable flash point and reasonable density and viscosity. The higher calorific value is found to be 39.9 MJ/kg which is higher than other biomass derived pyrolysis oils.

Fixed bed pyrolysis of pulm seed waste for liquid oil production

Among various thermo-chemical conversion processes, pyrolysis is considered as an emerging technology for liquid oil production. The conversion of biomass waste in the form of plum seed into pyrolysis oil by fixed bed pyrolysis reactor has been taken into consideration in this study. A fixed bed pyrolysis has been designed and fabricated for obtaining liquid fuel from this plum seeds. The major component of the system are fixed bed pyrolysis reactor, liquid condenser and liquid collectors. The plum seed in particle form is pyrolysed in an externally heated 7.6 cm diameter and 46 cm high fixed bed reactor with nitrogen as the carrier gas. The reactor is heated by means of a biomass source cylindrical heater from 4000C to 6000C. The products are oil, char and gas. The reactor bed temperature, running time and feed particle size are considered as process parameters. The parameters are found to influence the product yield significantly. A maximum liquid yield of 39 wt% of biomass feed is obtained with particle size of 2.36-4.75 mm at a reactor bed temperature of 520oC with a running time of 120 minutes. The pyrolysis oil obtained at this optimum process conditions are analyzed for some fuel properties and compared with some other biomass derived pyrolysis oils and conventional fuels. The oil is found to possess favorable flash point and reasonable density and viscosity. The higher calorific value is found to be 22.39 MJ/kg which is higher than other biomass derived pyrolysis oils.

Production of liquid fuel and activated carbon from mahogany seed by using pyrolysis technology

The renovation of biomass waste in the form of Mahogany seed waste into bio-fuel as well as activated carbon by fixed bed pyrolysis reactor has been taken into consideration in this study. The mahogany seed in particle form is pyrolyzed in an enormously heated fixed bed reactor with nitrogen as the carrier gas. The reactor is heated from 4000C to 6000C using a external heater in which rice husk and charcoal are used as the heater biomass fuel. Reactor bed temperature, running time and feed particle size have been varied to get the optimum operating conditions of the system. The parameters are found to influence the product yields to a large extent. A maximum liquid and char yield are 49 wt. % and 35 wt. % respectively obtained at a reactor bed temperature 5000C when the running time is 90 minutes. Acquired pyrolyzed oil at these optimal process conditions were analyzed for some of their properties as an alternative fuel. The oil possesses comparable flame temperature, favorable flash point and reasonable viscosity along with somewhat higher density. The kinematic viscosity of the derived fuel is 3.8 cSt and density is 1525 kg/m3. The higher calorific value is found 32.4 MJ/kg which is significantly higher than other biomass derived fuel. Moderate adsorption capacity of the prepared activated carbon in case of methyl blue & tea water was also revealed.

Utilization of bio-oil for cooking and lighting

Considerable attention has been given to development of renewable energy due to imminent depletion of fossil fuels and environmental concerns over global warming. Therefore, it is necessary to find out all the available alternative sources of energy immediately to meet the increasing energy demand of Bangladesh. Among the available alternative sources of energy in Bangladesh bio-oil is recognized to be a promising alternative energy source. In these days bio-oil is merely used in vehicles and power plants after some up gradation .However, it is not used for domestic purposes like cooking and lighting due to it’s high density and viscosity. A gravity stove is designed to use this high dense and viscous bio-oil for cooking purpose. Efficiency of gravity stove with high dense and viscous bio-oil (karanj) is 11.81% which of kerosene stove is 17.80% also the discharge of karanj oil through gravity stove is sufficient for continuous burning.

Performance evaluation of onsite sewage treatment : Evaluation of current research

Efficient management of domestic wastewater is a primary requirement for human well being. Failure to adequately address issues of wastewater collection, treatment and disposal can lead to adverse public health and environmental impacts. The increasing spread of urbanisation has led to the conversion of previously rural land into urban developments and the more intensive development of semi urban areas. However the provision of reticulated sewerage facilities has not kept pace with this expansion in urbanisation. This has resulted in a growing dependency on onsite sewage treatment. Though considered only as a temporary measure in the past, these systems are now considered as the most cost effective option and have become a permanent feature in some urban areas. This report is the first of a series of reports to be produced and is the outcome of a research project initiated by the Brisbane City Council. The primary objective of the research undertaken was to relate the treatment performance of onsite sewage treatment systems with soil conditions at site, with the emphasis being on septic tanks. This report consists of a ‘state of the art’ review of research undertaken in the arena of onsite sewage treatment. The evaluation of research brings together significant work undertaken locally and overseas. It focuses mainly on septic tanks in keeping with the primary objectives of the project. This report has acted as the springboard for the later field investigations and analysis undertaken as part of the project. Septic tanks still continue to be used widely due to their simplicity and low cost. Generally the treatment performance of septic tanks can be highly variable due to numerous factors, but a properly designed, operated and maintained septic tank can produce effluent of satisfactory quality. The reduction of hydraulic surges from washing machines and dishwashers, regular removal of accumulated septage and the elimination of harmful chemicals are some of the practices that can improve system performance considerably. The relative advantages of multi chamber over single chamber septic tanks is an issue that needs to be resolved in view of the conflicting research outcomes. In recent years, aerobic wastewater treatment systems (AWTS) have been gaining in popularity. This can be mainly attributed to the desire to avoid subsurface effluent disposal, which is the main cause of septic tank failure. The use of aerobic processes for treatment of wastewater and the disinfection of effluent prior to disposal is capable of producing effluent of a quality suitable for surface disposal. However the field performance of these has been disappointing. A significant number of these systems do not perform to stipulated standards and quality can be highly variable. This is primarily due to houseowner neglect or ignorance of correct operational and maintenance procedures. The other problems include greater susceptibility to shock loadings and sludge bulking. As identified in literature a number of design features can also contribute to this wide variation in quality. The other treatment processes in common use are the various types of filter systems. These include intermittent and recirculating sand filters. These systems too have their inherent advantages and disadvantages. Furthermore as in the case of aerobic systems, their performance is very much dependent on individual houseowner operation and maintenance practices. In recent years the use of biofilters has attracted research interest and particularly the use of peat. High removal rates of various wastewater pollutants have been reported in research literature. Despite these satisfactory results, leachate from peat has been reported in various studies. This is an issue that needs further investigations and as such biofilters can still be considered to be in the experimental stage. The use of other filter media such as absorbent plastic and bark has also been reported in literature. The safe and hygienic disposal of treated effluent is a matter of concern in the case of onsite sewage treatment. Subsurface disposal is the most common and the only option in the case of septic tank treatment. Soil is an excellent treatment medium if suitable conditions are present. The processes of sorption, filtration and oxidation can remove the various wastewater pollutants. The subsurface characteristics of the disposal area are among the most important parameters governing process performance. Therefore it is important that the soil and topographic conditions are taken into consideration in the design of the soil absorption system. Seepage trenches and beds are the common systems in use. Seepage pits or chambers can be used where subsurface conditions warrant, whilst above grade mounds have been recommended for a variety of difficult site conditions. All these systems have their inherent advantages and disadvantages and the preferable soil absorption system should be selected based on site characteristics. The use of gravel as in-fill for beds and trenches is open to question. It does not contribute to effluent treatment and has been shown to reduce the effective infiltrative surface area. This is due to physical obstruction and the migration of fines entrained in the gravel, into the soil matrix. The surface application of effluent is coming into increasing use with the advent of aerobic treatment systems. This has the advantage that treatment is undertaken on the upper soil horizons, which is chemically and biologically the most effective in effluent renovation. Numerous research studies have demonstrated the feasibility of this practice. However the overriding criteria is the quality of the effluent. It has to be of exceptionally good quality in order to ensure that there are no resulting public health impacts due to aerosol drift. This essentially is the main issue of concern, due to the unreliability of the effluent quality from aerobic systems. Secondly, it has also been found that most householders do not take adequate care in the operation of spray irrigation systems or in the maintenance of the irrigation area. Under these circumstances surface disposal of effluent should be approached with caution and would require appropriate householder education and stringent compliance requirements. However despite all this, the efficiency with which the process is undertaken will ultimately rest with the individual householder and this is where most concern rests. Greywater too should require similar considerations. Surface irrigation of greywater is currently being permitted in a number of local authority jurisdictions in Queensland. Considering the fact that greywater constitutes the largest fraction of the total wastewater generated in a household, it could be considered to be a potential resource. Unfortunately in most circumstances the only pretreatment that is required to be undertaken prior to reuse is the removal of oil and grease. This is an issue of concern as greywater can considered to be a weak to medium sewage as it contains primary pollutants such as BOD material and nutrients and may also include microbial contamination. Therefore its use for surface irrigation can pose a potential health risk. This is further compounded by the fact that most householders are unaware of the potential adverse impacts of indiscriminate greywater reuse. As in the case of blackwater effluent reuse, there have been suggestions that greywater should also be subjected to stringent guidelines. Under these circumstances the surface application of any wastewater requires careful consideration. The other option available for the disposal effluent is the use of evaporation systems. The use of evapotranspiration systems has been covered in this report. Research has shown that these systems are susceptible to a number of factors and in particular to climatic conditions. As such their applicability is location specific. Also the design of systems based solely on evapotranspiration is questionable. In order to ensure more reliability, the systems should be designed to include soil absorption. The successful use of these systems for intermittent usage has been noted in literature. Taking into consideration the issues discussed above, subsurface disposal of effluent is the safest under most conditions. This is provided the facility has been designed to accommodate site conditions. The main problem associated with subsurface disposal is the formation of a clogging mat on the infiltrative surfaces. Due to the formation of the clogging mat, the capacity of the soil to handle effluent is no longer governed by the soil’s hydraulic conductivity as measured by the percolation test, but rather by the infiltration rate through the clogged zone. The characteristics of the clogging mat have been shown to be influenced by various soil and effluent characteristics. Secondly, the mechanisms of clogging mat formation have been found to be influenced by various physical, chemical and biological processes. Biological clogging is the most common process taking place and occurs due to bacterial growth or its by-products reducing the soil pore diameters. Biological clogging is generally associated with anaerobic conditions. The formation of the clogging mat provides significant benefits. It acts as an efficient filter for the removal of microorganisms. Also as the clogging mat increases the hydraulic impedance to flow, unsaturated flow conditions will occur below the mat. This permits greater contact between effluent and soil particles thereby enhancing the purification process. This is particularly important in the case of highly permeable soils. However the adverse impacts of the clogging mat formation cannot be ignored as they can lead to significant reduction in the infiltration rate. This in fact is the most common cause of soil absorption systems failure. As the formation of the clogging mat is inevitable, it is important to ensure that it does not impede effluent infiltration beyond tolerable limits. Various strategies have been investigated to either control clogging mat formation or to remediate its severity. Intermittent dosing of effluent is one such strategy that has attracted considerable attention. Research conclusions with regard to short duration time intervals are contradictory. It has been claimed that the intermittent rest periods would result in the aerobic decomposition of the clogging mat leading to a subsequent increase in the infiltration rate. Contrary to this, it has also been claimed that short duration rest periods are insufficient to completely decompose the clogging mat, and the intermediate by-products that form as a result of aerobic processes would in fact lead to even more severe clogging. It has been further recommended that the rest periods should be much longer and should be in the range of about six months. This entails the provision of a second and alternating seepage bed. The other concepts that have been investigated are the design of the bed to meet the equilibrium infiltration rate that would eventuate after clogging mat formation; improved geometry such as the use of seepage trenches instead of beds; serial instead of parallel effluent distribution and low pressure dosing of effluent. The use of physical measures such as oxidation with hydrogen peroxide and replacement of the infiltration surface have been shown to be only of short-term benefit. Another issue of importance is the degree of pretreatment that should be provided to the effluent prior to subsurface application and the influence exerted by pollutant loadings on the clogging mat formation. Laboratory studies have shown that the total mass loadings of BOD and suspended solids are important factors in the formation of the clogging mat. It has also been found that the nature of the suspended solids is also an important factor. The finer particles from extended aeration systems when compared to those from septic tanks will penetrate deeper into the soil and hence will ultimately cause a more dense clogging mat. However the importance of improved pretreatment in clogging mat formation may need to be qualified in view of other research studies. It has also shown that effluent quality may be a factor in the case of highly permeable soils but this may not be the case with fine structured soils. The ultimate test of onsite sewage treatment system efficiency rests with the final disposal of effluent. The implication of system failure as evidenced from the surface ponding of effluent or the seepage of contaminants into the groundwater can be very serious as it can lead to environmental and public health impacts. Significant microbial contamination of surface and groundwater has been attributed to septic tank effluent. There are a number of documented instances of septic tank related waterborne disease outbreaks affecting large numbers of people. In a recent incident, the local authority was found liable for an outbreak of viral hepatitis A and not the individual septic tank owners as no action had been taken to remedy septic tank failure. This illustrates the responsibility placed on local authorities in terms of ensuring the proper operation of onsite sewage treatment systems. Even a properly functioning soil absorption system is only capable of removing phosphorus and microorganisms. The nitrogen remaining after plant uptake will not be retained in the soil column, but will instead gradually seep into the groundwater as nitrate. Conditions for nitrogen removal by denitrification are not generally present in a soil absorption bed. Dilution by groundwater is the only treatment available for reducing the nitrogen concentration to specified levels. Therefore based on subsurface conditions, this essentially entails a maximum allowable concentration of septic tanks in a given area. Unfortunately nitrogen is not the only wastewater pollutant of concern. Relatively long survival times and travel distances have been noted for microorganisms originating from soil absorption systems. This is likely to happen if saturated conditions persist under the soil absorption bed or due to surface runoff of effluent as a result of system failure. Soils have a finite capacity for the removal of phosphorus. Once this capacity is exceeded, phosphorus too will seep into the groundwater. The relatively high mobility of phosphorus in sandy soils have been noted in the literature. These issues have serious implications in the design and siting of soil absorption systems. It is not only important to ensure that the system design is based on subsurface conditions but also the density of these systems in given areas is a critical issue. This essentially involves the adoption of a land capability approach to determine the limitations of an individual site for onsite sewage disposal. The most limiting factor at a particular site would determine the overall capability classification for that site which would also dictate the type of effluent disposal method to be adopted.

The effects of dietary fish oil on inflammation, fibrosis and oxidative stress associated with obstructive renal injury in rats.

Scope: We examined whether dietary supplementation with fish oil modulates inflammation, fibrosis and oxidative stress following obstructive renal injury. Methods and results: Three groups of Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 16 per group) were fed for 4 wk on normal rat chow (oleic acid), chow containing fish oil (33 g eicosapentaenoic acid and 26 g docosahexaenoic acid per kg diet), or chow containing safflower oil (60 g linoleic acid per kg diet). All diets contained 7% fat. After 4 wk, the rats were further subdivided into four smaller groups (n = 4 per group). Unilateral ureteral obstruction was induced in three groups (for 4, 7 and 14 days). The fourth group for each diet did not undergo surgery, and was sacrificed as controls at 14 days. When rats were sacrificed, plasma and portions of the kidneys were removed and frozen; other portions of kidney tissue were fixed and prepared for histology. Compared with normal chow and safflower oil, fish oil attenuated collagen deposition, macrophage infiltration, TGF-beta expression, apoptosis, and tissue levels of arachidonic acid, MIP-1 alpha, IL-1 beta, MCP-1 and leukotriene B(4). Compared with normal chow, fish oil increased the expression of HO-1 protein in kidney tissue. Conclusions: Fish oil intake reduced inflammation, fibrosis and oxidative stress following obstructive renal injury.

Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the treatment of kidney disease

After more than 25 years of published investigation, including randomized controlled trials, the role of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the treatment of kidney disease remains unclear. In vitro and in vivo experimental studies support the efficacy of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on inflammatory pathways involved with the progression of kidney disease. Clinical investigations have focused predominantly on immunoglobulin A (IgA) nephropathy. More recently, lupus nephritis, polycystic kidney disease, and other glomerular diseases have been investigated. Clinical trials have shown conflicting results for the efficacy of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in IgA nephropathy, which may relate to varying doses, proportions of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid, duration of therapy, and sample size of the study populations. Meta-analyses of clinical trials using omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in IgA nephropathy have been limited by the quality of available studies. However, guidelines suggest that omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids should be considered in progressive IgA nephropathy. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids decrease blood pressure, a known accelerant of kidney disease progression. Well-designed, adequately powered, randomized, controlled clinical trials are required to further investigate the potential benefits of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on the progression of kidney disease and patient survival.

In vitro and in vivo studies on protease-activated receptor-2

Protease-activated receptor-2 (PAR2) is a G protein coupled receptor (GPCR) that is activated by proteolytic cleavage of its amino terminal domain by trypsin-like serine proteases. Cleavage of this receptor exposes a neoepitope, termed the tethered ligand (TL), which binds intramolecularly within the receptor to stimulate signal transduction via coupled G proteins. PAR2-mediated signal transduction is also experimentally stimulated by hexapeptides (agonist peptides; APs) that are homologous to the TL sequence. Due to the irreversible nature of PAR2 proteolysis, downstream signal transduction is tightly regulated. Following activation, PAR2 is rapidly uncoupled from downstream signalling by the post-translational modifications phosphorylation and ubiquination which facilitate interactions with â- arrestin. This scaffolding protein couples PAR2 to the internalisation machinery initiating its desensitisation and trafficking through the early and late endosomes followed by receptor degradation. PAR2 is widely expressed in mammalian tissues with key roles for this receptor in cardiovascular, respiratory, nervous and musculoskeletal systems. This receptor has also been linked to pathological states with aberrant expression and signalling noted in several cancers. In prostate cancer, PAR2 signalling induces migration and proliferation of tumour derived cell lines, while elevated receptor expression has been noted in malignant tissues. Importantly, a role for this receptor has also been suggested in prostate cancer bone metastasis as coexpression of PAR2 and a proteolytic activator has been demonstrated by immunohistochemical analysis. Based on these data, the primary focus of this project has been on two aspects of PAR2 biology. The first is characterisation of cellular mechanisms that regulate PAR2 signalling and trafficking. The second aspect is the role of this receptor in prostate cancer bone metastasis. In addition, to permit these studies, it was first necessary to evaluate the specificity of the commercially available anti-PAR2 antibodies SAM11, C17, N19 and H99. The evaluation of the four commercially available antibodies was assessed using four techniques: immunoprecipitation; Western blot analysis; immunofluorescence; and flow cytometry. These approaches demonstrated that three of the antibodies efficiently detect ectopically expressed PAR2 by each of these techniques. A significant finding from this study was that N19 was the only antibody able to specifically detect N-glycosylated endogenous PAR2 by Western blot analysis. This analysis was performed on lysates from prostate cancer derived cell lines and tissue derived from wildtype and PAR2 knockout mice. Importantly, further evaluation demonstrated that this antibody also efficiently detects endogenous PAR2 at the cell surface by flow cytometry. The anti-PAR2 antibody N19 was used to explore the in vitro role of palmitoylation, the post-translational addition of palmitate, in PAR2 signalling, trafficking, cell surface expression and desensitization. Significantly, use of the palmitoylation inhibitor 2-bromopalmitate indicated that palmitate addition is important in trafficking of PAR2 endogenously expressed by prostate cancer cell lines. This was supported by palmitate labelling experiments using two approaches which showed that PAR2 stably expressed by CHO cells is palmitoylated and that palmitoylation occurs on cysteine 361. Another key finding from this study is that palmitoylation is required for optimal PAR2 signalling as Ca2+ flux assays indicated that in response to trypsin agonism, palmitoylation deficient PAR2 is ~9 fold less potent than wildtype receptor with a reduction of about 33% in the maximum signal induced via the mutant receptor. Confocal microscopy, flow cytometry and cell surface biotinylation analyses demonstrated that palmitoylation is required for efficient cell surface expression of PAR2. Importantly, this study also identified that palmitoylation of this receptor within the Golgi apparatus is required for efficient agonist-induced rab11amediated trafficking of PAR2 to the cell surface. Interestingly, palmitoylation is also required for receptor desensitization, as agonist-induced â-arrestin recruitment and receptor degradation were markedly reduced in CHO-PAR2-C361A cells compared with CHO-PAR2 cells. Collectively, these data provide new insights on the life cycle of PAR2 and demonstrate that palmitoylation is critical for efficient signalling, trafficking, cell surface localization and degradation of this receptor. This project also evaluated PAR2 residues involved in ligand docking. Although the extracellular loop (ECL)2 of PAR2 is known to be required for agonist-induced signal transduction, the binding pocket for receptor agonists remains to be determined. In silico homology modelling, based on a crystal structure for the prototypical GPCR rhodopsin, and ligand docking were performed to identify PAR2 transmembrane (TM) amino acids potentially involved in agonist binding. These methods identified 12 candidate residues that were mutated to examine the binding site of the PAR2 TL, revealed by trypsin cleavage, as well as of the soluble ligands 2f-LIGRLO-NH2 and GB110, which are both structurally based on the AP SLIGRLNH2. Ligand binding was evaluated from the impact of the mutated residues on PAR2-mediated calcium mobilisation. An important finding from these experiments was that mutation of residues Y156 and Y326 significantly reduced 2f-LIGRLO-NH2 and GB110 agonist activity. L307 was also important for GB110 activity. Intriguingly, mutation of PAR2 residues did not alter trypsin-induced signalling to the same extent as for the soluble agonists. The reason for this difference remains to be further examined by in silico and in vitro experimentation and, potentially, crystal structure studies. However, these findings identified the importance of TM domains in PAR2 ligand docking and will enhance the design of both PAR2 agonists and potentially agents to inhibit signalling (antagonists). The potential importance of PAR2 in prostate cancer bone metastasis was examined using a mouse model. In patients, prostate cancer bone metastases cause bone growth by disrupting bone homeostasis. In an attempt to mimic prostate cancer growth in bone, PAR2 responsive 22Rv1 prostate cancer cells, which form mixed osteoblastic and osteolytic lesions, were injected into the proximal aspect of mouse tibiae. A role for PAR2 was assessed by treating these mice with the recently developed PAR2 antagonist GB88. As controls, animals bearing intra-tibial tumours were also treated with vehicle (olive oil) or the prostate cancer chemotherapeutic docetaxel. The effect of these treatments on bone was examined radiographically and by micro-CT. Consistent with previous studies, 22Rv1 tumours caused osteoblastic periosteal spicule formation and concurrent osteolytic bone loss. Significantly, blockade of PAR2 signalling reduced the osteoblastic and osteolytic phenotype of 22Rv1 tumours in bone. No bone defects were detected in mice treated with docetaxel. These qualitative data will be followed in the future by quantitative micro-CT analysis as well as histology and histomorphometry analysis of already collected tissues. Nonetheless, these preliminary experiments highlight a potential role for PAR2 in prostate cancer growth in bone. In summary, in vitro studies have defined mechanisms regulating PAR2 activation, downstream signalling and trafficking and in vivo studies point to a potential role for this receptor in prostate cancer bone metastasis. The outcomes of this project are that a greater understanding of the biology of PAR2 may lead to the development of strategies to modulate the function of this receptor in disease.

Promoting student well-being and resilience at law school

University can be a psychologically distressing place for students, particularly those studying law. Legal academics have been concerned about this for some time. In the United States, in particular, it has been found that symptoms of psychological distress rise signifi cantly for students in their fi rst year of law (compared to levels in the general population at that time), and persist throughout the degree to post-graduation. Recognised symptoms include depression, obsessive compulsive behaviour, feelings of inadequacy and inferiority, anxiety, hostility, paranoia, and social alienation. Many students experience law school as an isolating, adversarial and competitive environment, which impacts negatively on their values and motivation...

Aromatherapy for treatment of postoperative nausea and vomiting

Background: Postoperative nausea and vomiting is a common and unpleasant phenomenon and current therapies are not always effective for all patients. Aromatherapy has been suggested as a possible addition to the available treatment strategies. Objectives: This review sought to establish what effect the use of aromatherapy has on the severity and duration of established postoperative nausea and vomiting and whether aromatherapy can be used with safety and clinical effectiveness comparable to standard pharmacological treatments. Search methods: We searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) (The Cochrane Library 2011, Issue 3); MEDLINE; EMBASE; CINAHL; CAM on PubMed; Meditext; LILACS database; and ISI Web of Science as well as grey literature sources and the reference lists of retrieved articles. We conducted database searches up to August 2011. Selection criteria: We included all randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and controlled clinical trials (CCTs) where aromatherapy was used to treat postoperative nausea and vomiting. Interventions were all types of aromatherapy. Aromatherapy was defined as the inhalation of the vapours of any substance for the purposes of a therapeutic benefit. Primary outcomes were the severity and duration of postoperative nausea and vomiting. Secondary outcomes were adverse reactions, use of rescue anti-emetics and patient satisfaction with treatment. Data collection and analysis: Two review authors assessed risk of bias in the included studies and extracted data. As all outcomes analysed were dichotomous, we used a fixed-effects model and calculated relative risk (RR) with associated 95% confidence interval (95% CI). Results: The nine included studies comprised six RCTs and three CCTs with a total of 402 participants. The mean age and range data for all participants were not reported for all studies. The method of randomization in four of the six included RCTs was explicitly stated and adequate. Incomplete reporting of data affected the completeness of the analysis. Compared with placebo, isopropyl alcohol vapour inhalation was effective in reducing the proportion of participants requiring rescue anti-emetics (RR 0.30, 95%CI 0.09 to 1.00, P = 0.05). However, compared with standard anti-emetic treatment, isopropyl alcohol was not effective in reducing the proportion of participants requiring rescue anti-emetics (RR 0.66 95%CI 0.39 to 1.13, P = 0.13) except when the data from a possibly confounded study were included (RR 0.66, 95% CI 0.45 to 0.98, P = 0.04). Where studies reported data on patient satisfaction with aromatherapy, there were no statistically significant differences between the groups (RR 1.12, 95%CI 0.62 to 2.03, P = 0.71). Authors' conclusions: Isopropyl alcohol was more effective than saline placebo for reducing postoperative nausea and vomiting but less effective than standard anti-emetic drugs. There is currently no reliable evidence for the use of peppermint oil.

Chemical variability of groundwater samples collected from a Coal Seam Gas exploration well, Maramarua, New Zealand

A pilot study has produced 31 groundwater samples from a coal seam gas (CSG) exploration well located in Maramarua, New Zealand. This paper describes sources of CSG water chemistry variations, and makes sampling and analytical recommendations to minimize these variations. The hydrochemical character of these samples is studied using factor analysis, geochemical modelling, and a sparging experiment. Factor analysis unveils carbon dioxide (CO2) degassing as the principal cause of sample variation (about 33%). Geochemical modelling corroborates these results and identifies minor precipitation of carbonate minerals with degassing. The sparging experiment confirms the effect of CO2 degassing by showing a steady rise in pH while maintaining constant alkalinity. Factor analysis correlates variations in the major ion composition (about 17%) to changes in the pumping regime and to aquifer chemistry variations due to cation exchange reactions with argillaceous minerals. An effective CSG water sampling program can be put into practice by measuring pH at the well head and alkalinity at the laboratory; these data can later be used to calculate the carbonate speciation at the time the sample was collected. In addition, TDS variations can be reduced considerably if a correct drying temperature of 180°C is consistently implemented.

Mental health and well-being in resident mine workers : out of the fly-in fly-out box

Objective: To explore psychosocial issues perceived to impact the mental health and well-being of resident (non-fly-in fly-out) mine workers at a local mine in regional Queensland. Design: A descriptive qualitative study using semistructured interviews. Setting: The research was conducted on-site at an opencut coal mine in regional Queensland. Participants: Ten miners (nine men) currently employed in workshop, production or supervisory roles. Main outcome measures: Self-reported issues affecting psychological well-being. Results: Participants’ occupation and the surrounding context appeared to have both positive and negative influences on their well-being. Overall findings could be grouped into four key themes: (i) the importance of relationships; (ii) the impact of lifestyle; (iii) work characteristics; and (iv) mental health attitudes. While not without strains on mental health, in general, participants reported that their current situation was superior to their previous mining jobs. This was attributed to close relationships among locally recruited workers, respect for management practices and rosters that allowed adequate sleep recovery and family time between shifts. Conclusions: This study is the first to examine mental health and well being in non-fly-in fly-out mining populations. It suggests that while some issues appear inherent in the mining occupation, personal and organisational support can help workers have a more positive workplace experience. Further work looking at more extensive comparisons over various mining contexts will greatly assist in the development of programs and support structures for rural and regional mine workers.