Physical characteristics of small ions and their interaction with ultrafine particles in the urban environment

In recent years, the effect of ions and ultrafine particles on ambient air quality and human health has been well documented, however, knowledge about their sources, concentrations and interactions within different types of urban environments remains limited. This thesis presents the results of numerous field studies aimed at quantifying variations in ion concentration with distance from the source, as well as identifying the dynamics of the particle ionisation processes which lead to the formation of charged particles in the air. In order to select the most appropriate measurement instruments and locations for the studies, a literature review was also conducted on studies that reported ion and ultrafine particle emissions from different sources in a typical urban environment. The initial study involved laboratory experiments on the attachment of ions to aerosols, so as to gain a better understanding of the interaction between ions and particles. This study determined the efficiency of corona ions at charging and removing particles from the air, as a function of different particle number and ion concentrations. The results showed that particle number loss was directly proportional to particle charge concentration, and that higher small ion concentrations led to higher particle deposition rates in all size ranges investigated. Nanoparticles were also observed to decrease with increasing particle charge concentration, due to their higher Brownian mobility and subsequent attachment to charged particles. Given that corona discharge from high voltage powerlines is considered one of the major ion sources in urban areas, a detailed study was then conducted under three parallel overhead powerlines, with a steady wind blowing in a perpendicular direction to the lines. The results showed that large sections of the lines did not produce any corona at all, while strong positive emissions were observed from discrete components such as a particular set of spacers on one of the lines. Measurements were also conducted at eight upwind and downwind points perpendicular to the powerlines, spanning a total distance of about 160m. The maximum positive small and large ion concentrations, and DC electric field were observed at a point 20 m downwind from the lines, with median values of 4.4×103 cm-3, 1.3×103 cm-3 and 530 V m-1, respectively. It was estimated that, at this point, less than 7% of the total number of particles was charged. The electrical parameters decreased steadily with increasing downwind distance from the lines but remained significantly higher than background levels at the limit of the measurements. Moreover, vehicles are one of the most prevalent ion and particle emitting sources in urban environments, and therefore, experiments were also conducted behind a motor vehicle exhaust pipe and near busy motorways, with the aim of quantifying small ion and particle charge concentration, as well as their distribution as a function of distance from the source. The study found that approximately equal numbers of positive and negative ions were observed in the vehicle exhaust plume, as well as near motorways, of which heavy duty vehicles were believed to be the main contributor. In addition, cluster ion concentration was observed to decrease rapidly within the first 10-15 m from the road and ion-ion recombination and ion-aerosol attachment were the most likely cause of ion depletion, rather than dilution and turbulence related processes. In addition to the above-mentioned dominant ion sources, other sources also exist within urban environments where intensive human activities take place. In this part of the study, airborne concentrations of small ions, particles and net particle charge were measured at 32 different outdoor sites in and around Brisbane, Australia, which were classified into seven different groups as follows: park, woodland, city centre, residential, freeway, powerlines and power substation. Whilst the study confirmed that powerlines, power substations and freeways were the main ion sources in an urban environment, it also suggested that not all powerlines emitted ions, only those with discrete corona discharge points. In addition to the main ion sources, higher ion concentrations were also observed environments affected by vehicle traffic and human activities, such as the city centre and residential areas. A considerable number of ions were also observed in a woodland area and it is still unclear if they were emitted directly from the trees, or if they originated from some other local source. Overall, it was found that different types of environments had different types of ion sources, which could be classified as unipolar or bipolar particle sources, as well as ion sources that co-exist with particle sources. In general, fewer small ions were observed at sites with co-existing sources, however particle charge was often higher due to the effect of ion-particle attachment. In summary, this study quantified ion concentrations in typical urban environments, identified major charge sources in urban areas, and determined the spatial dispersion of ions as a function of distance from the source, as well as their controlling factors. The study also presented ion-aerosol attachment efficiencies under high ion concentration conditions, both in the laboratory and in real outdoor environments. The outcomes of these studies addressed the aims of this work and advanced understanding of the charge status of aerosols in the urban environment.

Characterisation and source identification of selected pollutants in house dust

House dust is a heterogeneous matrix, which contains a number of biological materials and particulate matter gathered from several sources. It is the accumulation of a number of semi-volatile and non-volatile contaminants. The contaminants are trapped and preserved. Therefore, house dust can be viewed as an archive of both the indoor and outdoor air pollution. There is evidence to show that on average, people tend to stay indoors most of the time and this increases exposure to house dust. The aims of this investigation were to: " assess the levels of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), elements and pesticides in the indoor environment of the Brisbane area; " identify and characterise the possible sources of elemental constituents (inorganic elements), PAHs and pesticides by means of Positive Matrix Factorisation (PMF); and " establish the correlations between the levels of indoor air pollutants (PAHs, elements and pesticides) with the external and internal characteristics or attributes of the buildings and indoor activities by means of multivariate data analysis techniques. The dust samples were collected during the period of 2005-2007 from homes located in different suburbs of Brisbane, Ipswich and Toowoomba, in South East Queensland, Australia. A vacuum cleaner fitted with a paper bag was used as a sampler for collecting the house dust. A survey questionnaire was filled by the house residents which contained information about the indoor and outdoor characteristics of their residences. House dust samples were analysed for three different pollutants: Pesticides, Elements and PAHs. The analyses were carried-out for samples of particle size less than 250 µm. The chemical analyses for both pesticides and PAHs were performed using a Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), while elemental analysis was carried-out by using Inductively-Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectroscopy (ICP-MS). The data was subjected to multivariate data analysis techniques such as multi-criteria decision-making procedures, Preference Ranking Organisation Method for Enrichment Evaluations (PROMETHEE), coupled with Geometrical Analysis for Interactive Aid (GAIA) in order to rank the samples and to examine data display. This study showed that compared to the results from previous works, which were carried-out in Australia and overseas, the concentrations of pollutants in house dusts in Brisbane and the surrounding areas were relatively very high. The results of this work also showed significant correlations between some of the physical parameters (types of building material, floor level, distance from industrial areas and major road, and smoking) and the concentrations of pollutants. Types of building materials and the age of houses were found to be two of the primary factors that affect the concentrations of pesticides and elements in house dust. The concentrations of these two types of pollutant appear to be higher in old houses (timber houses) than in the brick ones. In contrast, the concentrations of PAHs were noticed to be higher in brick houses than in the timber ones. Other factors such as floor level, and distance from the main street and industrial area, also affected the concentrations of pollutants in the house dust samples. To apportion the sources and to understand mechanisms of pollutants, Positive Matrix Factorisation (PMF) receptor model was applied. The results showed that there were significant correlations between the degree of concentration of contaminants in house dust and the physical characteristics of houses, such as the age and the type of the house, the distance from the main road and industrial areas, and smoking. Sources of pollutants were identified. For PAHs, the sources were cooking activities, vehicle emissions, smoking, oil fumes, natural gas combustion and traces of diesel exhaust emissions; for pesticides the sources were application of pesticides for controlling termites in buildings and fences, treating indoor furniture and in gardens for controlling pests attacking horticultural and ornamental plants; for elements the sources were soil, cooking, smoking, paints, pesticides, combustion of motor fuels, residual fuel oil, motor vehicle emissions, wearing down of brake linings and industrial activities.

The role of cultural beliefs in contributing to risky road use behaviour in Pakistan

Background Pakistan has the highest population rate of road fatalities in South Asia (25.3 fatalities per 100,000 people: Global Status Report on Road Safety, WHO 2009). Along with road environment and vehicle factors, human factors make a substantial contribution to traffic safety in Pakistan. Beliefs about road crash causation and prevention have been demonstrated to contribute to risky road use behaviour and resistance to preventive measures in a handful of other developing countries, but has not been explored in Pakistan. In particular, fatalism (whether based on religion, other cultural beliefs or experience) has been highlighted as a barrier to achieving changes in attitudes and behaviour. Aims The research reported here aimed (i) to explore perceptions of road crash causation among policy makers, police officers, professional drivers and car drivers in Pakistan; (ii) to identify how cultural and religious beliefs influence road use behaviour in Pakistan; and (iii) to understand how fatalistic beliefs may work as obstacles to road safety interventions. Methods In-depth interviews were conducted by the primary author (mostly in Urdu) in Lahore, Rawalpindi and Islamabad with 12 professional drivers (taxi, bus and truck), 4 car drivers, 6 police officers, 4 policy makers and 2 religious orators. All but two were Muslim, two were female, and they were drawn from a wide range of ages (24 to 60) and educational backgrounds. The interviews were taped and transcribed, then translated into English and analysed for themes related to the aims. Results Fatalism emerged as a pervasive belief utilised to justify risky road use behaviour and to resist messages about preventive measures. There was a strong religious underpinning to the statement of fatalistic beliefs (this reflects popular conceptions of Islam rather than scholarly interpretations), but also an overlap with superstitious beliefs which have longer-standing roots in Pakistani culture. These beliefs were not limited to people of poor educational background or position. A particular issue which was explored in more detail was the way in which these beliefs and their interpretation within Pakistani society contributed to poor police reporting of crashes. Discussion and conclusions The pervasive nature of fatalistic beliefs in Pakistan affects road user behaviour by supporting continued risk taking behaviour on the road, and by interfering with public health messages about behaviours which would reduce the risk of traffic crashes. The widespread influence of these beliefs on the ways that people respond to traffic crashes and the death of family members contribute to low crash reporting rates and to a system which is difficult to change. The promotion of an evidence-based approach to road user behaviour is recommended, along with improved professional education for police and policy makers.

Evaluation of the skills for preventing injury in youth program : impact on health risk behaviors, injury and school connectedness

Injury is the leading cause of death among young people, and involvement in health risk behaviors, such as alcohol use and transport-related risks, is related to increased risk for injury. Effective health promotion programs for adolescents focus on multiple levels, including relationships with peers and parents, student knowledge, behavior and attitudes, and school-level factors such as school connectedness. This study describes the pilot evaluation of a comprehensive, multi-level injury prevention program for 13-14 year old adolescents, targeting change in injury associated with transport and alcohol risks. The program, called Skills for Preventing Injury in Youth (SPIY), incorporates two primary elements: an 8-week, teacher delivered attitude and behavior change curriculum with peer protection and first aid messages; and professional development for program teachers focusing on strategies to increase students’ connectedness to school. Five Australian high schools were recruited for the pilot evaluation research, with three being assigned to receive intervention components and two assigned as curriculum-as-usual controls. In the intervention schools, 118 Year 8 students participated in surveys at baseline, with 105 completing surveys at follow up, six months following the intervention. In the control schools, 196 Year 8 students completed surveys at baseline and 207 at follow up. Survey measures included self-reported injury, risk taking behavior and school connectedness. Results showed that students in the control schools were significantly more likely to report riding bikes without helmets, riding with dangerous drivers, having driven cars on the road, and using alcohol six months after the program, while the intervention group showed no such increase in these behaviors. Additionally, students in the control schools were significantly more likely to report having had pedestrian-related injuries at follow up than they were at the baseline measurement, while intervention school students showed no change. There was also a trend observed in terms of a decrease in bicycle related injuries among intervention school students, compared with a slight increasing trend in bicycle injuries among control students. Overall, scores on the school connectedness scale decreased significantly from baseline to follow up for both intervention and control students, however measurement limitations may have impacted on results relating to students’ connectedness. Overall, the SPIY program has shown promising results in regards to prevention of students’ health risk behavior and injuries. Evidence suggests that the curriculum component was important; however there was limited evidence to suggest that teacher training in school connectedness strategies contributed to these promising results. While school connectedness may be an important factor to target in risk and injury prevention programs, programs may need to incorporate whole-of-school strategies or target a broader range of teachers than were selected for the current research.

Gender differences in recreational and transport cycling : a cross-sectional mixed-methods comparison of cycling patterns, motivators, and constraints

Background: Gender differences in cycling are well-documented. However, most analyses of gender differences make broad comparisons, with few studies modeling male and female cycling patterns separately for recreational and transport cycling. This modeling is important, in order to improve our efforts to promote cycling to women and men in countries like Australia with low rates of transport cycling. The main aim of this study was to examine gender differences in cycling patterns and in motivators and constraints to cycling, separately for recreational and transport cycling. Methods: Adult members of a Queensland, Australia, community bicycling organization completed an online survey about their cycling patterns; cycling purposes; and personal, social and perceived environmental motivators and constraints (47% response rate). Closed and open-end questions were completed. Using the quantitative data, multivariable linear, logistic and ordinal regression models were used to examine associations between gender and cycling patterns, motivators and constraints. The qualitative data were thematically analysed to expand upon the quantitative findings. Results: In this sample of 1862 bicyclists, men were more likely than women to cycle for recreation and for transport, and they cycled for longer. Most transport cycling was for commuting, with men more likely than women to commute by bicycle. Men were more likely to cycle on-road, and women off-road. However, most men and women did not prefer to cycle on-road without designed bicycle lanes, and qualitative data indicated a strong preference by men and women for bicycle-only off-road paths. Both genders reported personal factors (health and enjoyment related) as motivators for cycling, although women were more likely to agree that other personal, social and environmental factors were also motivating. The main constraints for both genders and both cycling purposes were perceived environmental factors related to traffic conditions, motorist aggression and safety. Women, however, reported more constraints, and were more likely to report as constraints other environmental factors and personal factors. Conclusion: Differences found in men’s and women’s cycling patterns, motivators and constraints should be considered in efforts to promote cycling, particularly in efforts to increase cycling for transport.

Multinational contracting into Australia: Developing Dunning's theory and case study design

In response to the need to leverage private finance and the lack of competition in some parts of the Australian public sector infrastructure market, the Australian Federal government has demonstrated its desire to attract new sources of in-bound foreign direct investment (FDI) by multinational contractors. This study aims to update progress towards an investigation into the determinants of multinational contractors’ willingness to bid for Australian public sector major road and bridges. This research deploys Dunning’s eclectic theory for the first time in terms of in-bound FDI by multinational contractors into Australia. Elsewhere, the authors have developed Dunning’s principal hypothesis to suit the context of this research and to address a weakness arising in this hypothesis that is based on a nominal (yes or no) approach to the ownership, location and internalisation factors in Dunning's eclectic framework and which fails to speak to the relative explanatory power of these factors. The authors have completed a first stage test of this development of Dunning's hypothesis based on publically available secondary data, in which it was concluded tentatively that the location factor appears to have the greatest explanatory power. This paper aims to present, for the first time, a further and novel development of the operation of Dunning's eclectic paradigm within the context of multinational contracting, as well as a preview of the design and planned analysis of the next empirical stage in this research concerning case studies. Finally, and beyond the theoretical contributions expected, other expected contributions are mentioned concerning research method and practical implications.

Mobility and active ageing in suburban environments : findings from in-depth interviews and person-based GPS tracking

Background. Governments face a significant challenge to ensure that community environments meet the mobility needs of an ageing population. Therefore, it is critical to investigate the effect of suburban environments on the choice of transportation and its relation to participation and active ageing. Objective. This research explores if and how suburban environments impact older people’s mobility and their use of different modes of transport. Methods. Data derived from GPS tracking, travel diaries, brief questionnaires, and semistructured interviews were gathered from thirteen people aged from 56 to 87 years, living in low-density suburban environments in Brisbane, Australia. Results. The suburban environment influenced the choice of transportation and out-of-home mobility. Both walkability and public transportation (access and usability) impact older people’s transportation choices. Impracticality of active and public transportation within suburban environments creates car dependency in older age. Conclusion. Suburban environments often create barriers to mobility, which impedes older people’s engagement in their wider community and ability to actively age in place. Further research is needed to develop approaches towards age-friendly suburban environments which will encourage older people to remain active and engaged in older age.

Transportation : implications for accessibility for older people

Objective: This research investigates older people’s use of transportation to develop strategies for age-friendly transportation within the community. Methods: Data for this study was derived from Global Positioning System (GPS) tracking of thirteen people aged 55 years and older, together with self-report information recorded in travel diaries about daily activities undertaken outside the home over a period of seven days. Semi-structured interviews were aided by individual maps to investigate engagement in out-of-home activities and verify the recorded GPS data. Results: Overall, participants were highly reliant on the car for daily commuting. Walking, biking and public transport options were unattractive due to environmental conditions, accessibility and usability. Conclusion: Participation within the community and access to services is facilitated by private and public transportation. It is therefore critical to address accessibility and usability issues faced by older people to enable them to maintain their mobility, and ensure access to services, especially when driving ceases.

Sources of ultrafine particles and chemical species along a traffic corridor : comparison of the results from two receptor models

Particulate matter is common in our environment and has been linked to human health problems particularly in the ultrafine size range. A range of chemical species have been associated with particulate matter and of special concern are the hazardous chemicals that can accentuate health problems. If the sources of such particles can be identified then strategies can be developed for the reduction of air pollution and consequently, the improvement of the quality of life. In this investigation, particle number size distribution data and the concentrations of chemical species were obtained at two sites in Brisbane, Australia. Source apportionment was used to determine the sources (or factors) responsible for the particle size distribution data. The apportionment was performed by Positive Matrix Factorisation (PMF) and Principal Component Analysis/Absolute Principal Component Scores (PCA/APCS), and the results were compared with information from the gaseous chemical composition analysis. Although PCA/APCS resolved more sources, the results of the PMF analysis appear to be more reliable. Six common sources identified by both methods include: traffic 1, traffic 2, local traffic, biomass burning, and two unassigned factors. Thus motor vehicle related activities had the most impact on the data with the average contribution from nearly all sources to the measured concentrations higher during peak traffic hours and weekdays. Further analyses incorporated the meteorological measurements into the PMF results to determine the direction of the sources relative to the measurement sites, and this indicated that traffic on the nearby road and intersection was responsible for most of the factors. The described methodology which utilised a combination of three types of data related to particulate matter to determine the sources could assist future development of particle emission control and reduction strategies.

Data requirements and graph data structures for a multi-modal, multi-objective trip planner

Traffic congestion has a significant impact on the economy and environment. Encouraging the use of multimodal transport (public transport, bicycle, park’n’ride, etc.) has been identified by traffic operators as a good strategy to tackle congestion issues and its detrimental environmental impacts. A multi-modal and multi-objective trip planner provides users with various multi-modal options optimised on objectives that they prefer (cheapest, fastest, safest, etc) and has a potential to reduce congestion on both a temporal and spatial scale. The computation of multi-modal and multi-objective trips is a complicated mathematical problem, as it must integrate and utilize a diverse range of large data sets, including both road network information and public transport schedules, as well as optimising for a number of competing objectives, where fully optimising for one objective, such as travel time, can adversely affect other objectives, such as cost. The relationship between these objectives can also be quite subjective, as their priorities will vary from user to user. This paper will first outline the various data requirements and formats that are needed for the multi-modal multi-objective trip planner to operate, including static information about the physical infrastructure within Brisbane as well as real-time and historical data to predict traffic flow on the road network and the status of public transport. It will then present information on the graph data structures representing the road and public transport networks within Brisbane that are used in the trip planner to calculate optimal routes. This will allow for an investigation into the various shortest path algorithms that have been researched over the last few decades, and provide a foundation for the construction of the Multi-modal Multi-objective Trip Planner by the development of innovative new algorithms that can operate the large diverse data sets and competing objectives.

School-based first aid training and the implications for traffic injury prevention : a randomised controlled trial

Adolescent injury remains a significant public health concern and is often the result of at-risk transport related behaviours. When a person is injured actions taken by bystanders are of crucial importance and timely first aid appears to reduce the severity of some injuries (Hussain & Redmond, 1994). Accordingly, researchers have suggested that first aid training should be more widely available as a potential strategy to reduce injury (Lynch et al., 2006). Further research has identified schools as an ideal setting for learning first aid skills as a means of injury prevention (Maitra, 1997). The current research examines the implications of school based first aid training for young adolescents on injury prevention, particularly relating to transport injuries. First aid training was integrated with peer protection and school connectedness within the Skills for Preventing Injury in Youth (SPIY) program (Buckley & Sheehan, 2009) and evaluated to determine if there was a reduction in the likelihood of transport related injuries at six months post-intervention. In Queensland, Australia, 35 high schools were recruited and randomly assigned to intervention and control conditions in early April 2012. A total of 2,000 Year nine students (mean age 13.5 years, 39% male) completed surveys six months post-intervention in November 2012. Analyses will compare the intervention students with control group students who self-reported i) first aid training with a teacher, professional or other adult and ii) no first aid in the preceding six months. Using the Extended Adolescent Injury Checklist (E-AIC) (Chapman, Buckley & Sheehan, 2011) the transport related injury experiences included being injured while “riding as a passenger in a car”, “driving a car off road” and “riding a bicycle”. It is expected that students taught first aid within SPIY will report significantly fewer transport related injuries in the previous three months, compared to the control groups described above. Analyses will be conducted separately for sex and socio-economic class of schools. Findings from this study will provide insight into the value of first aid in adolescent injury prevention and provide evidence as to whether teaching first aid skills within a school based health education curriculum has traffic safety implications.

The relationship between airborne small ions and particles in urban environments

Ions play an important role in affecting climate and particle formation in the atmosphere. Small ions rapidly attach to particles in the air and, therefore, studies have shown that they are suppressed in polluted environments. Urban environments, in particular, are dominated by motor vehicle emissions and, since motor vehicles are a source of both particles and small ions, the relationship between these two parameters is not well known. In order to gain a better understanding of this relationship, an intensive campaign was undertaken where particles and small ions of both signs were monitored over two week periods at each of three sites A, B and C that were affected to varying degrees by vehicle emissions. Site A was close to a major road and reported the highest particle number and lowest small ion concentrations. Precursors from motor vehicle emissions gave rise to clear particle formation events on five days and, on each day this was accompanied by a suppression of small ions. Observations at Site B, which was located within the urban airshed, though not adjacent to motor traffic, showed particle enhancement but no formation events. Site C was a clean site, away from urban sources. This site reported the lowest particle number and highest small ion concentration. The positive small ion concentration was 10% to 40% higher than the corresponding negative value at all sites. These results confirm previous findings that there is a clear inverse relationship between small ions and particles in urban environments dominated by motor vehicle emissions.

Children exposure assessment to ultrafine particles and black carbon: The role of transport and cooking activities

An accurate evaluation of the airborne particle dose-response relationship requires detailed measurements of the actual particle concentration levels that people are exposed to, in every microenvironment in which they reside. The aim of this work was to perform an exposure assessment of children in relation to two different aerosol species: ultrafine particles (UFPs) and black carbon (BC). To this purpose, personal exposure measurements, in terms of UFP and BC concentrations, were performed on 103 children aged 8-11 years (10.1 ± 1.1 years) using hand-held particle counters and aethalometers. Simultaneously, a time-activity diary and a portable GPS were used to determine the children’s daily time-activity pattern and estimate their inhaled dose of UFPs and BC. The median concentration to which the study population was exposed was found to be comparable to the high levels typically detected in urban traffic microenvironments, in terms of both particle number (2.2×104 part. cm-3) and BC (3.8 μg m-3) concentrations. Daily inhaled doses were also found to be relatively high and were equal to 3.35×1011 part. day-1 and 3.92×101 μg day-1 for UFPs and BC, respectively. Cooking and using transportation were recognized as the main activities contributing to overall daily exposure, when normalized according to their corresponding time contribution for UFPs and BC, respectively. Therefore, UFPs and BC could represent tracers of children exposure to particulate pollution from indoor cooking activities and transportation microenvironments, respectively.

Prevalence and characteristics of Indigenous drink-driving convictions in Queensland, Australia

Alcohol-involved accidents are one of the leading contributors towards high injury rates among Indigenous Australians. However, there is limited information available to inform existing policies to change current rates. The study aims to provide information about the prevalence and the characteristics of such behaviour. Drink driving convictions from 2006-2010 were extracted from the Queensland Department of Justice and Attorney General database. Convictions were regrouped by gender, age, Accessibility/Remoteness Index of Australia classification (using court location) and sentence severity. A number of cross tabulations were carried out to identify relationships between variables. Standardised adjusted residuals were calculated for each cell in order to determine cell differences that contributed to the chi-square test results. Analysis revealed there were 9,323 convictions, of which the majority were for offences by males (77.5%). In relation to age, 52.6% of the convictions were of persons under 25 years of age. Age was significantly different across the five regions for males only (χ2=90.8, p<0.001), with a larger number of convictions in the ‘very remote’ region of persons over 40+ years of age. Increased remoteness was linked with high range BAC convictions for both males (χ2=168.4, p<0.001) and females (χ2=22.5, p=0.004). Monetary penalties were the primary sentence received for both males and females in all regions. The findings identify the Indigenous drink driving conviction rate to be 6 times that of the general Queensland rate and indicate that a multipronged approach is needed, with tailored strategies for remote offenders, young adults and offenders with alcohol misuse and dependency issues. Further attention is warranted in this area of road safety.

“Would you; could you; on a boat?” Wait-time and travel-time activities during river ferry journeys and their relationship to overall satisfaction in Brisbane Queensland

This study investigates travel behaviour and wait-time activities as a component of passenger satisfaction with public transport in Brisbane, Australia. Australian transport planners recognise a variety of benefits to encouraging a mode shift away from automobile travel in favour of active and public transport use. Efforts to increase public transport ridership have included introducing state of the art passenger information systems, improving physical station access, and integrating system pricing, routes and scheduling for train, bus and ferry. Previous research regarding satisfaction with public transport emphasizes technical dimensions of service quality, including the timing and reliability of service. Those factors might be especially significant for frequent (commuting) travellers who look to balance the cost and efficiency of their travel options. In contrast, infrequent (leisure) passengers may be more concerned with way finding and the sensory experience of the journey. Perhaps due to the small relative proportion of trips made by river ferry compared to bus and rail, this mode of public transport has not received as much attention in travel-behaviour research. This case study of Brisbane’s river ferry system examines ferry passengers at selected terminals during peak and off-peak travel times to find out how travel behaviours and activities correlate to satisfaction with ferry travel. Data include 416 questionnaires completed by passengers intercepted during wait times at seven CityCat terminals in Brisbane. Descriptive statistical analysis revealed associations between specific wait time activities and satisfaction levels that could inform planners seeking to increase ridership and quality of life through ferry-oriented development.