Women, drinking and aggression on a night out: Do girls just wanna have fun?

Alcohol misuse and violence is a major public safety concern. Although the extent and nature of alcohol-related violence has been examined there is a paucity of research surrounding the ongoing construction and re-construction of gender identity and its relationship to aggression and alcohol consumption. A social constructionist perspective was used to explore women’s perceptions and experiences of drinking alcohol and incidents of public violence and aggression. Two methods were used. Firstly, an exploratory study consisting of three in-depth interviews and three focus groups to examine the ideas women constructed in relation to their experiences; and further, an online survey to explore self-reported drinking patterns among men and women. The main themes emerging from the qualitative material were ‘planned drinking to excess’ (incorporating the rituals of a ‘pre-drink’ routine), and perceptions of appropriate feminine behaviour (particularly in relation to excessive drinking and alcohol related aggression in and around licensed venues). The survey data indicated that men continue to consume more alcohol and at higher levels than women, while women’s involvement in aggressive incidents on a night out being similar to that of men. Both genders considered that women’s involvement in aggressive incidents in and around licensed venues as ‘unfeminine’. Understanding drinking as a socially constructed activity adds to our understanding of the meaning of drinking for women, and in particular, young women. This perspective may allow more focussed initiatives to address the social and health related harms associated with drinking in and around licensed venues.

Iron biogeochemistry and associated greenhouse gas evolution in a forested subtropical Australian coastal catchment : Poona Creek, Southeast Queensland

Iron (Fe) is the fourth most abundant element in the Earth’s crust. Excess Fe mobilization from terrestrial into aquatic systems is of concern for deterioration of water quality via biofouling and nuisance algal blooms in coastal and marine systems. Substantial Fe dissolution and transport involve alternate Fe(II) oxidation followed by Fe(III) reduction, with a diversity of Bacteria and Archaea acting as the key catalyst. Microbially-mediated Fe cycling is of global significance with regard to cycles of carbon (C), sulfur (S) and manganese (Mn). However, knowledge regarding microbial Fe cycling in circumneutral-pH habitats that prevail on Earth has been lacking until recently. In particular, little is known regarding microbial function in Fe cycling and associated Fe mobilization and greenhouse (CO2 and CH4, GHG) evolution in subtropical Australian coastal systems where microbial response to ambient variations such as seasonal flooding and land use changes is of concern. Using the plantation-forested Poona Creek catchment on the Fraser Coast of Southeast Queensland (SEQ), this research aimed to 1) study Fe cycling-associated bacterial populations in diverse terrestrial and aquatic habitats of a representative subtropical coastal circumneutral-pH (4–7) ecosystem; and 2) assess potential impacts of Pinus plantation forestry practices on microbially-mediated Fe mobilization, organic C mineralization and associated GHG evolution in coastal SEQ. A combination of wet-chemical extraction, undisturbed core microcosm, laboratory bacterial cultivation, microscopy and 16S rRNA-based molecular phylogenetic techniques were employed. The study area consisted primarily of loamy sands, with low organic C and dissolved nutrients. Total reactive Fe was abundant and evenly distributed within soil 0–30 cm profiles. Organic complexation primarily controlled Fe bioavailability and forms in well-drained plantation soils and water-logged, native riparian soils, whereas tidal flushing exerted a strong “seawater effect” in estuarine locations and formed a large proportion of inorganic Fe(III) complexes. There was a lack of Fe(II) sources across the catchment terrestrial system. Mature, first-rotation plantation clear-felling and second-rotation replanting significantly decreased organic matter and poorly crystalline Fe in well-drained soils, although variations in labile soil organic C fractions (dissolved organic C, DOC; and microbial biomass C, MBC) were minor. Both well-drained plantation soils and water-logged, native-vegetation soils were inhabited by a variety of cultivable, chemotrophic bacterial populations capable of C, Fe, S and Mn metabolism via lithotrophic or heterotrophic, (micro)aerobic or anaerobic pathways. Neutrophilic Fe(III)-reducing bacteria (FeRB) were most abundant, followed by aerobic, heterotrophic bacteria (heterotrophic plate count, HPC). Despite an abundance of FeRB, cultivable Fe(II)-oxidizing bacteria (FeOB) were absent in associated soils. A lack of links between cultivable Fe, S or Mn bacterial densities and relevant chemical measurements (except for HPC correlated with DOC) was likely due to complex biogeochemical interactions. Neither did variations in cultivable bacterial densities correlate with plantation forestry practices, despite total cultivable bacterial densities being significantly lower in estuarine soils when compared with well-drained plantation soils and water-logged, riparian native-vegetation soils. Given that bacterial Fe(III) reduction is the primary mechanism of Fe oxide dissolution in soils upon saturation, associated Fe mobilization involved several abiotic and biological processes. Abiotic oxidation of dissolved Fe(II) by Mn appeared to control Fe transport and inhibit Fe dissolution from mature, first-rotation plantation soils post-saturation. Such an effect was not observed in clear-felled and replanted soils associated with low SOM and potentially low Mn reactivity. Associated GHG evolution post-saturation mainly involved variable CO2 emissions, with low, but consistently increasing CH4 effluxes in mature, first-rotation plantation soil only. In comparison, water-logged soils in the riparian native-vegetation buffer zone functioned as an important GHG source, with high potentials for Fe mobilization and GHG, particularly CH4 emissions in riparian loam soils associated with high clay and crystalline Fe fractions. Active Fe–C cycling was unlikely to occur in lower-catchment estuarine soils associated with low cultivable bacterial densities and GHG effluxes. As a key component of bacterial Fe cycling, neutrophilic FeOB widely occurred in diverse aquatic, but not terrestrial, habitats of the catchment study area. Stalked and sheathed FeOB resembling Gallionella and Leptothrix were limited to microbial mat material deposited in surface fresh waters associated with a circumneutral-pH seep, and clay-rich soil within riparian buffer zones. Unicellular, Sideroxydans-related FeOB (96% sequence identity) were ubiquitous in surface and subsurface freshwater environments, with highest abundance in estuary-adjacent shallow coastal groundwater water associated with redox transition. The abundance of dissolved C and Fe in the groundwater-dependent system was associated with high numbers of cultivable anaerobic, heterotrophic FeRB, microaerophilic, putatively lithotrophic FeOB and aerobic, heterotrophic bacteria. This research represents the first study of microbial Fe cycling in diverse circumneutral-pH environments (terrestrial–aquatic, freshwater–estuarine, surface–subsurface) of a subtropical coastal ecosystem. It also represents the first study of its kind in the southern hemisphere. This work highlights the significance of bacterial Fe(III) reduction in terrestrial, and bacterial Fe(II) oxidation in aquatic catchment Fe cycling. Results indicate the risk of promotion of Fe mobilization due to plantation clear-felling and replanting, and GHG emissions associated with seasonal water-logging. Additional significant outcomes were also achieved. The first direct evidence for multiple biomineralization patterns of neutrophilic, microaerophilic, unicellular FeOB was presented. A putatively pure culture, which represents the first cultivable neutrophilic FeOB from the southern hemisphere, was obtained as representative FeOB ubiquitous in diverse catchment aquatic habitats.

The Commercial Surrogacy Dilemma

In November 2009 the England and Wales High Court (Family Division) granted a parental order pursuant to s30 Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990 in respect of twins who came to be in the custody and control of the applicants (Mr and Mrs A) through a surrogacy arrangement. The particularly unusual and interesting aspect of this case is that, on the evidence, Mr and Mrs A had paid expenses to the surrogate above and beyond those allowed by the legislation, thus creating a commercial surrogacy arrangement. Commercial surrogacy arrangements involve the payment of money to the surrogate mother in excess of those expenses which have been reasonably incurred pursuant to the surrogacy arrangement. This case is relevant to Queensland law because commercial surrogacy arrangements are also prohibited in Queensland and, as in the United Kingdom, the court cannot make a parentage order unless it is satisfied the surrogacy arrangement is not a commercial surrogacy arrangement.

An experimental study of a reactive plume in grid turbulence

Experimental results for a reactive non-buoyant plume of nitric oxide (NO) in a turbulent grid flow doped with ozone (O3) are presented. The Damkohler number (Nd) for the experiment is of order unity indicating the turbulence and chemistry have similar timescales and both affect the chemical reaction rate. Continuous measurements of two components of velocity using hot-wire anemometry and the two reactants using chemiluminescent analysers have been made. A spatial resolution for the reactants of four Kolmogorov scales has been possible because of the novel design of the experiment. Measurements at this resolution for a reactive plume are not found in the literature. The experiment has been conducted relatively close to the grid in the region where self-similarity of the plume has not yet developed. Statistics of a conserved scalar, deduced from both reactive and non-reactive scalars by conserved scalar theory, are used to establish the mixing field of the plume, which is found to be consistent with theoretical considerations and with those found by other investigators in non-reative flows. Where appropriate the reactive species means and higher moments, probability density functions, joint statistics and spectra are compared with their respective frozen, equilibrium and reaction-dominated limits deduced from conserved scalar theory. The theoretical limits bracket reactive scalar statistics where this should be so according to conserved scalar theory. Both reactants approach their equilibrium limits with greater distance downstream. In the region of measurement, the plume reactant behaves as the reactant not in excess and the ambient reactant behaves as the reactant in excess. The reactant covariance lies outside its frozen and equilibrium limits for this value of Vd. The reaction rate closure of Toor (1969) is compared with the measured reaction rate. The gradient model is used to obtain turbulent diffusivities from turbulent fluxes. Diffusivity of a non-reactive scalar is found to be close to that measured in non-reactive flows by others.

The subjective experience of negative symptoms : characteristics of emotional withdrawal

According to the diagnosis of schizophrenia in the DSM-IV-TR (American Psychiatric Association, 2000), negative symptoms are those personal characteristics that are thought to be reduced from normal functioning, while positive symptoms are aspects of functioning that exist as an excess or distortion of normal functioning. Negative symptoms are generally considered to be a core feature of people diagnosed with schizophrenia. However, negative symptoms are not always present in those diagnosed, and a diagnosis can be made with only negative or only positive symptoms, or with a combination of both. Negative symptoms include an observed loss of emotional expression (affective flattening), loss of motivation or self directedness (avolition), loss of speech (alogia), and also a loss of interests and pleasures (anhedonia). Positive symptoms include the perception of things that others do not perceive (hallucinations), and extraordinary explanations for ordinary events (delusions) (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Both negative and positive symptoms are derived from watching the patient and thus do not consider the patient’s subjective experience. However, aspects of negative symptoms, such as observed affective flattening are highly contended. Within conventional psychiatry, the absence of emotional expression is assumed to coincide with an absence of emotional experience. Contrasting research findings suggests that patients who were observed to score low on displayed emotional expression, scored high on self ratings of emotional experience. Patients were also observed to be significantly lower on emotional expression when compared with others (Aghevli, Blanchard, & Horan, 2003; Selton, van der Bosch, & Sijben, 1998). It appears that there is little correlation between emotional experience and emotional expression in patients, and that observer ratings cannot help us to understand the subjective experience of the negative symptoms. This chapter will focus on research into the subjective experiences of negative symptoms. A framework for these experiences will be used from the qualitative research findings of the primary author (Le Lievre, 2010). In this study, the primary author found that subjective experiences of the negative symptoms belonged to one of the two phases of the illness experience; “transitioning into emotional shutdown” or “recovering from emotional shutdown”. This chapter will use the six themes from the phase of “transitioning into emotional shutdown”. This phase described the experience of turning the focus of attention away from the world and onto the self and the past, thus losing contact with the world and others (emotional shutdown). Transitioning into emotional shutdown involved; “not being acknowledged”, “relational confusion”, “not being expressive”, “reliving the past”, “detachment”, and “no sense of direction” (Le Lievre, 2010). Detail will be added to this framework of experience from other qualitative research in this area. We will now review the six themes that constitute a “transition into emotional shutdown” and corresponding previous research findings.

Laying the Groundwork for the Successful Deployment of Communication Interception Technology (CIT) in Modern Policing

With the growth and development of communication technology there is an increasing need for the use of interception technologies in modern policing. Law enforcement agencies are faced with increasingly sophisticated and complex criminal networks that utilise modern communication technology as a basis for their criminal success. In particular, transnational organised crime (TOC) is a diverse and complicated arena, costing global society in excess of $3 trillion annually, a figure that continues to grow (Borger, 2007) as crime groups take advantage of disappearing borders and greater profit markets. However, whilst communication can be a critical success factor for criminal enterprise it is also a key vulnerability. It is this vulnerability that the use of CIT, such as phone taps or email interception, can exploit. As such, law enforcement agencies now need a method and framework that allows them to utilise CIT to combat these crimes efficiently and successfully. This paper provides a review of current literature with the specific purpose of considering the effectiveness of CIT in the fight against TOC and the groundwork that must be laid in order for it to be fully exploited. In doing so, it fills an important gap in current research, focusing on the practical implementation of CIT as opposed to the traditional area of privacy concerns that arise with intrusive methods of investigation. The findings support the notion that CIT is an essential intelligence gathering tool that has a strong place within the modern policing arena. It identifies that the most effective use of CIT is grounded within a proactive, intelligence‐led framework and concludes that in order for this to happen Australian authorities and law enforcement agencies must re‐evaluate and address the current legislative and operational constraints placed on the use of CIT and the culture that surrounds intelligence in policing.

State of Origin : Queensland Crown Leasehold - lessons from New South Wales

Throughout Australia freehold land interests are protected by statutory schemes which grant indefeasibility of title to registered interests. Queensland freehold land interests are protected by Torrens system established by the Land Title Act 1994. However, no such protection exists for Crown land interests. The extent of Queensland occupied under some form of Crown tenure, in excess of 70%, means that Queensland Crown land users are disadvantaged when compared to freehold land users. This article examines the role indefeasibility of title has in protecting interests in Crown land. A comparative analysis is undertaken between Queensland and New South Wales land management frameworks to determine whether interests in crown land are adequately protected in Queensland.

Environmental reporting and its relation to corporate environmental performance

This study examines how both the level and the nature of environmental information voluntarily disclosed by Australian firms relate to their underlying environmental performance. Disclosure is scored using an index developed by Clarkson et al. (2008) based on Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) Guidelines and the environmental performance measure is based on emission data available from the National Pollutant Inventory (NPI). The sample consists of 51 firms that reported to the NPI in both 2002 and 2006. The findings are as follows. First, descriptive statistics indicate that while there was modest improvement in disclosure between 2002 and 2006, the highest disclosure score obtained was just slightly in excess of 50% of the maximum available based on the GRI Guidelines. Second, the results consistently indicate that not only do firms with a higher pollution propensity disclose more environmental information; they also rely on disclosures that the GRI views as inherently more objective and verifiable. Taken together, these results suggest that concerns regarding the reliability of voluntary environmental disclosures in the Australian context remain valid and thereby potentially signal a need for both enhanced mandatory reporting requirements and improved enforcement. In this regard, our study also informs regulatory policy on mandatory disclosures of environmental performance.

The role of physical activity in the lives of people with lymphoedema following cancer treatment : a social constructionist study

Lymphoedema is a chronic condition predominantly affecting the limbs, although it can involve the trunk and other areas of the body. It is characterised by swelling due to excess accumulation of fluid in body tissues. Secondary lymphoedema, which arises following cancer treatment, is the more common form of lymphoedema in developed countries. At least 20% of those diagnosed with the most common cancers will develop lymphoedema. This is a concern in Australia as incidence of these cancers is increasing. Cancer survival rates are also increasing. Currently, this equates to 9 300 new cases of secondary lymphoedema diagnosed each year. Considerable physical and psychosocial impacts of lymphoedema have been reported and its subsequent impact on health-related quality of life can exacerbate other side effects of cancer treatment. Exercise following cancer treatment has been shown to significantly reduce the impact of treatment side effects, improve quality of life and physical status. While participating in exercise does not increase risk nor exacerbate existing lymphoedema, reductions in incidence of lymphoedema exacerbations and associated symptoms have been observed in women participating in regular weight lifting following breast cancer treatment. Despite these benefits, lymphoedema prevention and management advice cautions people with lymphoedema against „repetitive use. or „overuse. of their affected arm. It is possible that this advice creates a barrier to participation in physical activity; however, little is known about the relationship between physical activity and lymphoedema. In addition, the majority of studies examining the experiences of people living with lymphoedema and the impact of the condition have been predominantly conducted internationally and have focused on women following breast cancer. This study sought to explore firstly, how men and women construct their experience of living with lymphoedema following treatment for a range of cancers in the context of everyday life in Australia; and secondly, to analyse the role of physical activity in the lives of those living with lymphoedema following cancer treatment. A social constructivist grounded theory approach was taken to explore these objectives as it is acknowledged that human actions and the meanings associated with these actions are influenced by the interaction between the self and the social world. It is also acknowledged that the research process itself is a social construction between the researcher and participant. Purposive sampling techniques were used to recruit a total of 29 participants from a variety of sources. Telephone interviews and focus groups were conducted to collect data. Data were concurrently collected and analysed and analysis was conducted using the constant comparative method. The core category that developed in objective one was „sense of self‟. The self was defined by perceptions participants held of themselves and their identity prior to a lymphoedema diagnosis and changes to their perceptions and identity since diagnosis. Three conceptual categories which related to each other and to „sense of self‟ were developed through the process of coding that represented the process of how participants constructed their experiences living with secondary lymphoedema in the context of everyday life. Firstly, altered normalcy reflected the physical and psychosocial changes experienced and the effect it had on their lives. Secondly, „accidental journey‟ reflected participants‟ journey with the heath care system prior to diagnosis through to longer term management. Thirdly, renegotiating control revealed participants perceived control over lymphoedema and their ability to participate in daily activities previously enjoyed. These findings revealed the failure of the broader health system to recognise the significant and chronic nature of a lymphoedema diagnosis following cancer treatment with greater understanding, knowledge and support from health professionals being needed. The findings also reveal access to health professionals trained in lymphoedema management, a comprehensive approach encompassing both physical and psychosocial needs and provision of practical and meaningful guidelines supported by scientific evidence would contribute to improved treatment and management of the condition. The key findings for objective two were that people with lymphoedema define physical activity in different ways. Physical activity post-diagnosis was perceived as important by most for a variety of reasons ranging from everyday functioning, to physical and psychosocial health benefits. Issues relating to the impact of lymphoedema on physical activity related to the impact on peoples‟ ability to be physically active, confusion about acceptable forms of physical activity and barriers that lymphoedema presented to being physically active. A relationship between how people construct their experiences with lymphoedema and the role of physical activity was also established. The contribution of physical activity to the lives of people living with lymphoedema following cancer treatment appeared to be influenced by their sense of self as socially constructed through their experiences prior to diagnosis and following diagnosis with lymphoedema. The influence of pre-lymphoedema habits, norms and beliefs suggests the importance of effective health promotion messages to encourage physical activity among the general population and specific messages and guidelines particular to the needs of those diagnosed with lymphoedema following cancer treatment. The influence of participant.s social constructions on the lymphoedema experience highlights the importance of improving interactions between the overall health care system and patients, providing a clear treatment plan, providing evidence-based and clear advice about participation in appropriate physical activity, which in doing so will limit the physical and psychosocial effect of lymphoedema and providing comprehensive physical and psychosocial support to those living with the condition and their families. This study has contributed to a deep understanding of people.s experiences with lymphoedema following cancer treatment and the role of physical activity in the context of daily life in Australia. Findings from this study lead to recommendations for advocacy, a comprehensive approach to diagnosis, treatment and management, and specific areas for future research.

Pass the scissors : consumers close in on the fashion industry

The fashion ecosystem is at boiling point as consumers turn up the heat in all areas of the fashion value, trend and supply chain. While traditionally fashion has been a monologue from designer brand to consumer, new technology and the virtual world has given consumers a voice to engage brands in a conversation to express evolving needs, ideas and feedback. Product customisation is no longer innovative. Successful brands are including customers in the design process and holding conversations ‘with’ them to improve product, manufacturing, sales, distribution, marketing and sustainable business practices. Co-creation and crowd sourcing are integral to any successful business model and designers and manufacturers are supplying the technology or tools for these creative, active, participatory ‘prosumers’. With this collaboration however, there arises a worrying trend for fashion professionals. The ‘design it yourself’, ‘indiepreneur’ who with the combination of technology, the internet, excess manufacturing capacity, crowd funding and the idea of sharing the creative integrity of a product (‘copyleft’ not copyright) is challenging the notion that the fashion supply chain is complex. The passive ‘consumer’ no longer exists. Fashion designers now share the stage with ‘amateur’ creators who are disrupting every activity they touch, while being motivated by profit as well as a quest for originality and innovation. This paper examines the effects this ‘consumer’ engagement is having on traditional fashion models and the fashion supply chain. Crowd sourcing, crowd funding, co-creating, design it yourself, global sourcing, the virtual supply chain, social media, online shopping, group buying, consumer to consumer marketing and retail, and branding the ‘individual’ are indicative of the new consumer-driven fashion models. Consumers now drive the fashion industry - from setting trends, through to creating, producing, selling and marketing product. They can turn up the heat at any time _ and any point _ in the fashion supply chain. They are raising the temperature at each and every stage of the chain, decreasing or eliminating the processes involved: decreasing the risk of fashion obsolescence, quantities for manufacture, complexity of distribution and the consumption of product; eliminating certain stages altogether and limiting the brand as custodians of marketing. Some brands are discovering a new ‘enemy’ – the very people they are trying to sell to. Keywords: fashion supply chain, virtual world, consumer, ‘prosumers’, co-creation, fashion designers

Gaseous and particle emissions from an ethanol fumigated compression ignition engine

A 4-cylinder Ford 2701C test engine was used in this study to explore the impact of ethanol fumigation on gaseous and particle emission concentrations. The fumigation technique delivered vaporised ethanol into the intake manifold of the engine, using an injector, a pump and pressure regulator, a heat exchanger for vaporising ethanol and a separate fuel tank and lines. Gaseous (Nitric oxide (NO), Carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbons (HC)) and particulate emissions (particle mass (PM2.5) and particle number) testing was conducted at intermediate speed (1700 rpm) using 4 load settings with ethanol substitution percentages ranging from 10-40 % (by energy). With ethanol fumigation, NO and PM2.5 emissions were reduced, whereas CO and HC emissions increased considerably and particle number emissions increased at most test settings. It was found that ethanol fumigation reduced the excess air factor for the engine and this led to increased emissions of CO and HC, but decreased emissions of NO. PM2.5 emissions were reduced with ethanol fumigation, as ethanol has a very low “sooting” tendency. This is due to the higher hydrogen-to-carbon ratio of this fuel, and also because ethanol does not contain aromatics, both of which are known soot precursors. The use of a diesel oxidation catalyst (as an after-treatment device) is recommended to achieve a reduction in the four pollutants that are currently regulated for compression ignition engines. The increase in particle number emissions with ethanol fumigation was due to the formation of volatile (organic) particles; consequently, using a diesel oxidation catalyst will also assist in reducing particle number emissions.

Something rotten in the state of Minnesota: or the morality of backwoodsmen: 'A Simple Plan'

'A Simple Plan' is a deceptively complex and multilayered film, combining elements of Celtic mythology with the morality play and the windfall fantasy gone disastrously wrong. Despite its blending of realism and heavyhanded symbolism, and its abundant trans-textual gestures, 'A Simple Plan' is in many ways defiantly not a 90s movie: its leading characters are fashionably flawed, but they are neither sensitive, nor honourable, nor heroic; there are no startling special effects or intricate timeshifts; and it desperately gives the impression of depth, of being emphatically more than mere superficial excess. At a stretch it almost appears to be a throwback to the 1930s Production Code emphasis on the role of cinema in moral instruction; while good hardly triumphs over evil, venality is painfully and emphatically punished. But in other ways it is a quintessential late 90s film: an American/British/Japanese/German/French co-production, 'A Simple Plan' acts most palpably as a commentary on the moral, economic and social condition of the United States at the end of the American century.

Green leases : becoming a reality

Only a few years ago there were only a handful of buildings in Australia, mainly leased by or from the Commonwealth Government to which a green lease might have application. Now with the passing of the Building Energy Efficiency Disclosure Act 2010 (Cth) all commercial office premises in excess of 2000 square metres have 12 months from 1 November 2010 to obtain a Building Energy Efficiency Certificate as part of Stage 1 of the Federal Government’s National Framework for Energy Efficiency This significant change has focused attention on changes required to the conditions of leases where the building has a NABERS rating. This article considers material from the United Kingdom, the United States and Canada where there are similar policy changes in play and makes suggestions as to how certain clauses of a standard lease of a commercial office block may be altered to meet this new regime.

Developing targeted countermeasures to improve motorcycle safety

The fatality and injury rate of motorcyclists per registered vehicle are higher than those of other motor vehicles by 13 and 7 times respectively. The crash involvement rate of motorcyclists as a victim party is 58% at intersections and as an offending party is 67% at expressways. Previous research efforts showed that the motorcycle safety programs are not very effective in improving motorcycle safety. This is perhaps due to inefficient design of safety program as specific causal factors may not be well explored. The objective of this study is to propose more sophisticated countermeasures and awareness programs for improving motorcycle safety after analyzing specific causal factors for motorcycle crashes at intersections and expressways. Methodologically this study applies the binary logistic model to explore the at-fault or not-at-fault crash involvement of motorcyclists at those locations. A number of explanatory variables representing roadway characteristics, environmental factors, motorcycle descriptions, and rider demographics have been evaluated. Results shows that the night time crash occurrence, presence of red light camera, lane position, rider age, licence class, and multivehicle collision significantly affect the fault of motorcyclists involved in crashes at intersections. On the other hand, the night time crash occurrence, lane position, speed limit, rider age, licence class, engine capacity, riding with pillion passenger, foreign registered motorcycles, and multivehicle collision has been found to be significant at expressways. Legislate to wear reflective clothes and using reflective markings on the motorcycles and helmets are suggested as an effective countermeasure for reducing their vulnerability. The red light cameras at intersections reduce the vulnerability of motorcycles and hence motorcycle flow and motorcycle crashes should be considered during installation of red light cameras. At signalized intersections, motorcyclists may be taught to follow correct movement and queuing rather than weaving through the traffic as it leads them to become victims of other motorists. The riding simulators in the training centers can be useful to demonstrate the proper movement and queuing at junctions. Riding with pillion passenger and excess speed at expressways are found to significantly influence the at at-fault crash involvement of the motorcyclists. Hence the motorcyclists should be advised to concentrate more on riding while riding with pillion passenger and encouraged to avoid excess speed at expressways. Very young and very older group of riders are found to be at-fault than middle aged groups. Hence this group of riders should be targeted for safety improvement. This can be done by arranging safety talks and programs in motorcycling clubs in colleges and universities as well as community riding clubs with high proportion of elderly riders. It is recommended that the driving centers may use the findings of this study to include in licensure program to make motorcyclists more aware of the different factors which expose the motorcyclists to crash risks so that more defensive riding may be needed.

Motorcycle safety at signalized intersections

Motorcycles are overrepresented in road traffic crashes and particularly vulnerable at signalized intersections. ‘Motorcycle safety at signalized intersections’ provides an in-depth understanding of hazards of motorcycles at signalized intersections and suggests some targeted countermeasures to alleviate the problem. Motorcycle safety has been examined by establishing innovative statistical models with detailed investigation on specific maneuver behavior of motorcycles at intersections. Results indicate that motorcyclists are over exposed at signalized intersections and the excess exposure is one of main contributors to their vulnerability at intersections. The presence of red light cameras at intersections not only lower motorcycle crashes due to reduced red-light running in the conflicting stream but also decrease their exposure and hence crashes due to a more restrained discharge pattern of motorcycles. Targeted countermeasures should include deployment of red-light cameras, improvement in motorcyclist visibility and increased awareness on motorcyclist vulnerability.