An examination of monotony and hypovigilance, independent of fatigue : relevance to road safety

Driving is a vigilance task, requiring sustained attention to maintain performance and avoid crashes. Hypovigilance (i.e., marked reduction in vigilance) while driving manifests as poor driving performance and is commonly attributed to fatigue (Dinges, 1995). However, poor driving performance has been found to be more frequent when driving in monotonous road environments, suggesting that monotony plays a role in generating hypovigilance (Thiffault & Bergeron, 2003b). Research to date has tended to conceptualise monotony as a uni-dimensional task characteristic, typically used over a prolonged period of time to facilitate other factors under investigation, most notably fatigue. However, more often than not, more than one exogenous factor relating to the task or operating environment is manipulated to vary or generate monotony (Mascord & Heath, 1992). Here we aimed to explore whether monotony is a multi-dimensional construct that is determined by characteristics of both the task proper and the task environment. The general assumption that monotony is a task characteristic used solely to elicit hypovigilance or poor performance related to fatigue appears to have led to there being little rigorous investigation into the exact nature of the relationship. While the two concepts are undoubtedly linked, the independent effect of monotony on hypovigilance remains largely ignored. Notwithstanding, there is evidence that monotony effects can emerge very early in vigilance tasks and are not necessarily accompanied by fatigue (see Meuter, Rakotonirainy, Johns, & Wagner, 2005). This phenomenon raises a largely untested, empirical question explored in two studies: Can hypovigilance emerge as a consequence of task and/or environmental monotony, independent of time on task and fatigue? In Study 1, using a short computerised vigilance task requiring responses to be withheld to infrequent targets, we explored the differential impacts of stimuli and task demand manipulations on the development of a monotonous context and the associated effects on vigilance performance (as indexed by respone errors and response times), independent of fatigue and time on task. The role of individual differences (sensation seeking, extroversion and cognitive failures) in moderating monotony effects was also considered. The results indicate that monotony affects sustained attention, with hypovigilance and associated performance worse in monotonous than in non-monotonous contexts. Critically, performance decrements emerged early in the task (within 4.3 minutes) and remained consistent over the course of the experiment (21.5 minutes), suggesting that monotony effects can operate independent of time on task and fatigue. A combination of low task demands and low stimulus variability form a monotonous context characterised by hypovigilance and poor task performance. Variations to task demand and stimulus variability were also found to independently affect performance, suggesting that monotony is a multi-dimensional construct relating to both task monotony (associated with the task itself) and environmental monotony (related to characteristics of the stimulus). Consequently, it can be concluded that monotony is multi-dimensional and is characterised by low variability in stimuli and/or task demands. The proposition that individual differences emerge under conditions of varying monotony with high sensation seekers and/or extroverts performing worse in monotonous contexts was only partially supported. Using a driving simulator, the findings of Study 1 were extended to a driving context to identify the behavioural and psychophysiological indices of monotony-related hypovigilance associated with variations to road design and road side scenery (Study 2). Supporting the proposition that monotony is a multi-dimensional construct, road design variability emerged as a key moderating characteristic of environmental monotony, resulting in poor driving performance indexed by decrements in steering wheel measures (mean lateral position). Sensation seeking also emerged as a moderating factor, where participants high in sensation seeking tendencies displayed worse driving behaviour in monotonous conditions. Importantly, impaired driving performance was observed within 8 minutes of commencing the driving task characterised by environmental monotony (low variability in road design) and was not accompanied by a decline in psychophysiological arousal. In addition, no subjective declines in alertness were reported. With fatigue effects associated with prolonged driving (van der Hulst, Meijman, & Rothengatter, 2001) and indexed by drowsiness, this pattern of results indicates that monotony can affect driver vigilance, independent of time on task and fatigue. Perceptual load theory (Lavie, 1995, 2005) and mindlessness theory (Robertson, Manly, Andrade, Baddley, & Yiend, 1997) provide useful theoretical frameworks for explaining and predicting monotony effects by positing that the low load (of task and/or stimuli) associated with a monotonous task results in spare attentional capacity which spills over involuntarily, resulting in the processing of task-irrelevant stimuli or task unrelated thoughts. That is, individuals – even when not fatigued - become easily distracted when performing a highly monotonous task, resulting in hypovigilance and impaired performance. The implications for road safety, including the likely effectiveness of fatigue countermeasures to mitigate monotony-related driver hypovigilance are discussed.

Cloning and characterization of a novel human gene related to vascular endothelial growth factor

This paper describes the cloning and characterization of a new member of the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) gene family, which we have designated VRF for VEGF-related-factor. Sequencing of cDNAs from a human fetal brain library and RT-PCR products from normal and tumor tissue cDNA pools indicate two alternatively spliced messages with open reading frames of 621 and 564 bp, respectively. The predicted proteins differ at their carboxyl ends resulting from a shift in the open reading frame. Both isoforms show strong homology to VEGF at their amino termini, but only the shorter isoform maintains homology to VEGF at its carboxyl terminus and conserves all 16 cysteine residues of VEGF165. Similarity comparisons of this isoform revealed overall protein identity of 48% and conservative substitution of 69% with VEGF189. VRF is predicted to contain a signal peptide, suggesting that it may be a secreted factor. The VRF gene maps to the D11S750 locus at chromosome band 11q13, and the protein coding region, spanning approximately 5 kb, is comprised of 8 exons that range in size from 36 to 431 bp. Exons 6 and 7 are contiguous and the two isoforms of VRF arise through alternate splicing of exon 6. VRF appears to be ubiquitously expressed as two transcripts of 2.0 and 5.5 kb; the level of expression is similar among normal and malignant tissues.

Targeting mutant fibroblast growth factor receptors in cancer

Fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFRs) play diverse roles in the control of cell proliferation, cell differentiation, angiogenesis and development. Activating the mutations of FGFRs in the germline has long been known to cause a variety of skeletal developmental disorders, but it is only recently that a similar spectrum of somatic FGFR mutations has been associated with human cancers. Many of these somatic mutations are gain-of-function and oncogenic and create dependencies in tumor cell lines harboring such mutations. A combination of knockdown studies and pharmaceutical inhibition in preclinical models has further substantiated genomically altered FGFR as a therapeutic target in cancer, and the oncology community is responding with clinical trials evaluating multikinase inhibitors with anti-FGFR activity and a new generation of specific pan-FGFR inhibitors.

Large scale participatory acoustic sensor data analysis : tools and reputation models to enhance effectiveness

Acoustic sensors play an important role in augmenting the traditional biodiversity monitoring activities carried out by ecologists and conservation biologists. With this ability however comes the burden of analysing large volumes of complex acoustic data. Given the complexity of acoustic sensor data, fully automated analysis for a wide range of species is still a significant challenge. This research investigates the use of citizen scientists to analyse large volumes of environmental acoustic data in order to identify bird species. Specifically, it investigates ways in which the efficiency of a user can be improved through the use of species identification tools and the use of reputation models to predict the accuracy of users with unidentified skill levels. Initial experimental results are reported.

Lymphedema after breast or gynecological cancer : use and effectiveness of mainstream and complementary therapies

Objectives: The purpose of this study was to describe the use, as well as perceived effectiveness, of mainstream and complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) therapies in the treatment of lymphedema following breast or gynecological cancer. Further, the study assessed the relationship between the characteristics of lymphedema (including type, severity, stability, and duration), and the use of CAM and/or mainstream treatment. Methods: This was a cross-sectional study using a convenience sample of women with lymphedema following breast and gynecological cancers. A self-administered questionnaire was sent to 247 potentially eligible women. Of those returned (50%), 23 were ineligible and 6 were excluded due to level of missing data. Results: In the previous 12 months, the majority of women (90%) had used mainstream treatments to treat their lymphedema, with massage being the most commonly used (86%). One (1) in 2 women had used CAM to treat their lymphedema, and 98% of those using CAM were also using mainstream treatments. Over 27 types of CAM were reported, with use of a chi machine, vitamin E supplements, yoga, and meditation being the most commonly reported forms. The perceived effectiveness ratings (1–7 with 7 = completely effective) of mainstream(mean – standard deviation (SD): 5.3 – 1.5) and CAM therapies (mean – SD: 5.2 + 1.6) were considered high. Conclusions: These results demonstrate that mainstream and CAM treatment use is common, varied, and considered to be effective among women with lymphedema following breast or gynecological cancer. Furthermore, it highlights the immediate need for larger prospective studies assessing the inter-relationship between the use of mainstream and CAM therapies for treatment success.

Screening, isolation, and decolonisation strategies in the control of meticillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus in intensive care units : cost effectiveness evaluation

Objective: To assess the cost-effectiveness of screening, isolation and decolonisation strategies in the control of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in intensive care units (ICUs). Design: Economic evaluation. Setting: England and Wales. Population: ICU patients. Main outcome measures: Infections, deaths, costs, quality adjusted life years (QALYs), incremental cost-effectiveness ratios for alternative strategies, net monetary benefits (NMBs). Results: All strategies using isolation but not decolonisation improved health outcomes but increased costs. When MRSA prevalence on admission to the ICU was 5% and the willingness to pay per QALY gained was between £20,000 and £30,000, the best such strategy was to isolate only those patients at high risk of carrying MRSA (either pre-emptively or following identification by admission and weekly MRSA screening using chromogenic agar). Universal admission and weekly screening using polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based MRSA detection coupled with isolation was unlikely to be cost-effective unless prevalence was high (10% colonised with MRSA on admission to the ICU). All decolonisation strategies improved health outcomes and reduced costs. While universal decolonisation (regardless of MRSA status) was the most cost-effective in the short-term, strategies using screening to target MRSA carriers may be preferred due to reduced risk of selecting for resistance. Amongst such targeted strategies, universal admission and weekly PCR screening coupled with decolonisation with nasal mupirocin was the most cost-effective. This finding was robust to ICU size, MRSA admission prevalence, the proportion of patients classified as high-risk, and the precise value of willingness to pay for health benefits. Conclusions: MRSA control strategies that use decolonisation are likely to be cost-saving in an ICU setting provided resistance is lacking, and combining universal PCR-based screening with decolonisation is likely to represent good value for money if untargeted decolonisation is considered unacceptable. In ICUs where decolonisation is not implemented there is insufficient evidence to support universal MRSA screening outside high prevalence settings.

Hyaluronic acid : evaluation as a potential delivery vehicle for vitronectin:growth factor complexes in wound healing applications

We have previously reported that novel vitronectin:growth factor (VN:GF) complexes significantly increase re-epithelialization in a porcine deep dermal partial-thickness burn model. However, the potential exists to further enhance the healing response through combination with an appropriate delivery vehicle which facilitates sustained local release and reduced doses of VN:GF complexes. Hyaluronic acid (HA), an abundant constituent of the interstitium, is known to function as a reservoir for growth factors and other bioactive species. The physicochemical properties of HA confer it with an ability to sustain elevated pericellular concentrations of these species. This has been proposed to arise via HA prolonging interactions of the bioactive species with cell surface receptors and/or protecting them from degradation. In view of this, the potential of HA to facilitate the topical delivery of VN:GF complexes was evaluated. Two-dimensional (2D) monolayer cell cultures and 3D de-epidermised dermis (DED) human skin equivalent (HSE) models were used to test skin cell responses to HA and VN:GF complexes. Our 2D studies revealed that VN:GF complexes and HA stimulate the proliferation of human fibroblasts but not keratinocytes. Experiments in our 3D DED-HSE models showed that VN:GF complexes, both alone and in conjunction with HA, led to enhanced development of both the proliferative and differentiating layers in the DED-HSE models. However, there was no significant difference between the thicknesses of the epidermis treated with VN:GF complexes alone and VN:GF complexes together with HA. While the addition of HA did not enhance all the cellular responses to VN:GF complexes examined, it was not inhibitory, and may confer other advantages related to enhanced absorption and transport that could be beneficial in delivery of the VN:GF complexes to wounds.

Intensive Case Management: A Critical Re-Appraisal of the Scientific Evidence for Effectiveness

Intensive Case Management (ICM) is widely claimed to be an evidence-based and cost effective program for people with high levels of disability as a result of mental illness. However, the findings of recent randomized controlled trials comparing ICM with ‘usual services’ suggest that both clinical and cost effectiveness of ICM may be weakening. Possible reasons for this, including fidelity of implementation, researcher allegiance effects and changes in the wider service environment within which ICM is provided, are considered. The implications for service delivery and research are discussed.

Enhancing employment services for people with severe mental illness: the challenge of the Australian service environment

Objectives:  Comparatively few people with severe mental illness are employed despite evidence that many people within this group wish to obtain, can obtain and sustain employment, and that employment can contribute to recovery. This investigation aimed to: (i) describe the current policy and service environment within which people with severe mental illness receive employment services; (ii) identify evidence-based practices that improve employment outcomes for people with severe mental illness; (iii) determine the extent to which the current Australian policy environment is consistent with the implementation of evidence-based employment services for people with severe mental illness; and (iv) identify methods and priorities for enhancing employment services for Australians with severe mental illness through implementation of evidence-based practices. Method:  Current Australian practices were identified, having reference to policy and legal documents, funding body requirements and anecdotal reports. Evidence-based employment services for people with severe mental illness were identified through examination of published reviews and the results of recent controlled trials. Results:  Current policy settings support the provision of employment services for people with severe mental illness separate from clinical services. Recent studies have identified integration of clinical and employment services as a major factor in the effectiveness of employment services. This is usually achieved through co-location of employment and mental health services. Conclusions:  Optimal evidence-based employment services are needed by Australians with severe mental illness. Providing optimal services is a challenge in the current policy environment. Service integration may be achieved through enhanced intersectoral links between employment and mental health service providers as well as by co-locating employment specialists within a mental health care setting.

But does it work? Effectiveness of scientific visualisations in high school chemistry and physics instruction.

Scientific visualisations such as computer-based animations and simulations are increasingly a feature of high school science instruction. Visualisations are adopted enthusiastically by teachers and embraced by students, and there is good evidence that they are popular and well received. There is limited evidence, however, of how effective they are in enabling students to learn key scientific concepts. This paper reports the results of a quantitative study conducted in Australian physics and chemistry classrooms. In general there was no statistically significant difference between teaching with and without visualisations, however there were intriguing differences around student sex and academic ability.

Measuring the effectiveness of computer-based scientific visualisations for conceptual development in Australian chemistry classrooms

Visual modes of representation have always been very important in science and science education. Interactive computer-based animations and simulations offer new visual resources for chemistry education. Many studies have shown that students enjoy learning with visualisations but few have explored how learning outcomes compare when teaching with or without visualisations. This study employs a quasi-experimental crossover research design and quantitative methods to measure the educational effectiveness - defined as level of conceptual development on the part of students - of using computer-based scientific visualisations versus teaching without visualisations in teaching chemistry. In addition to finding that teaching with visualisations offered outcomes that were not significantly different from teaching without visualisations, the study also explored differences in outcomes for male and female students, students with different learning styles (visual, aural, kinesthetic) and students of differing levels of academic ability.

One approach to finding evidence for the effectiveness of scientific visualisations in high school physics and chemistry education

Enormous amounts of money and energy are being devoted to the development, use and organisation of computer-based scientific visualisations (e.g. animations and simulations) in science education. It seems plausible that visualisations that enable students to gain visual access to scientific phenomena that are too large, too small or occur too quickly or too slowly to be seen by the naked eye, or to scientific concepts and models, would yield enhanced conceptual learning. When the literature is searched, however, it quickly becomes apparent that there is a dearth of quantitative evidence for the effectiveness of scientific visualisations in enhancing students’ learning of science concepts. This paper outlines an Australian project that is using innovative research methodology to gather evidence on this question in physics and chemistry classrooms.