Kilpailukykyvaltion koululainsäädännön rakentuminen : Suomen eduskunta ja 1990-luvun koulutuspoliittinen käänne

Finnish education policy, educational legislation and the entire education system changed significantly during the 1990s as part of a general restructuring of public administration. There has been a clear divergence from the former tradition of a system of regulation, founded on detailed legislation and the principle of equality. The new governance, which is based more on individual choice, efficiency and evaluation, emphasizes that the development of a high standard of education is a necessity in the light of global competition. This study explores the legislative process regarding education policy in the Finnish Parliament during the 1990s, and highlights in particular how the international discourse on education policies was restructured in the context of Finnish legislation. The research material consists of all the public parliamentary documents relating to education, including government proposals, minutes from the discussions in the chamber and archive material (final protocols, reports and statements) for the Committee for Education and Culture. The discourse on the process of drafting and passing education legislation is modelled on three interrelated policy technologies (market, management and performance), which are understood here as mechanisms connecting general political ideas to normative legislation. The changes in the regulation of education were part of a general public administration reform instigated during the mid 1980s. The research results will prove that during the left-right coalition cabinet of PM Harri Holkeri, new policy technologies affected the parliamentary discourse on education policy. This was particularly influenced by a change in the preconditions for the management of education that was created as a result of the numerous demands to deregulate and delegate decision-making authority to the local and school levels while rendering the whole education system more effective. At the turn of the decade, market-type mechanisms were more indirectly manifested in the forms of individuality and freedom of choice, which were reflected, for example, in proposals to “lower the hurdles” by separating general from vocational secondary education with a view to encouraging students to select courses from other educational establishments, in addition to relaxing the requirements for establishing private schools and abolishing a hundred-year-old strict national catchment-area system. Later, in the course of the 1990s, after the subjects, players, and methods of evaluation had been more precisely defined, evaluation based on performance would result in the active measurement of the attainment of set objectives. In the spring of 1991, from the outset of PM Esko Aho's right-centre coalition cabinet, the education budget suffered cutbacks as a result of a global recession and this influenced the legislative work of, and discourses in, parliament. Representatives of the parties in power regarded the recession solely as an external factor that was remote from the political arena. In their view, the education system should rise to the challenge by ensuring the efficient and innovative use of the resources available and by developing new forms of indicators for evaluating results. Representatives of the opposition opposed the cabinet’s standpoint as a result of the recession, criticized the measures taken by pointing out the harmful effect of constantly cutting the budget and argued that the government had made political capital out of the recession by using it as an opportunity to give more room to market, management and performance technologies within the Finnish education system. Criticism of the new education policy became even stronger during PM Paavo Lipponen's first “rainbow” coalition cabinet with critical views being expressed not only from the opposition but also from representatives within the government. Representatives from the left demanded legislative restrictions and the instigation of measures to relieve the presumed negative effects of market, management and performance in the name of educational equality. The new management by results steering method within the university sector and the introduction of commercial education services in compulsory education were fiercely criticized. The argument over “setting outer limits” including, for example, the demands for more detailed legislation and earmarked state subsidies was characteristic of Parliament’s legislative discourse in the latter part of the 1990s. Keywords: education policy, education legislation, Parliament of Finland

Kouluromaanien opettajakuva 1930-luvulta 1990-luvulle : ihanteellisia, kapinallisia ja oman tien kulkijoita

The aim of this research is to define what kind of characters and images of teachers appear in Finnish school novels describing social changes and educational political reform from the 1930s to the 1990s written by teachers, particularly grammar school teachers. As comparison material, I use school novels written by Swedish school teachers, in which the changes in Swedish society and educational system and their expressions in the characters of teachers of the school novels are studied. The main focus of my study is centred particularly on school novels in which the images of grammar school teachers are described during times of school reform. From these starting points, the main objectives of the study are novels written by Finnish school teachers Anneli Toijala and Sampo Haahtela and Swedish school teacher Hugo Swensson, who was inspired by Haahtela. The research is qualitative multidisciplinary case analysis. The research method is content analysis, and the approach is hermeneutic. The research is divided into eight main chapters. After the introduction I introduce the essential concepts of my research. In the third main chapter I define the research function. In that context, besides the research objectives, I introduce former research on character description in literature, I define the methodological solutions with grounds and present the research material. Both literary research methods and sociological terminology are applied in the research alongside with pedagogical research. The research results show that images of teachers are diverse. At one end of the spectrum these represent immature pictures of teachers withdrawn into the routines of everyday life; at the other, they advance and reflect the reformist teacher. This becomes clearly evident when comparing the teacher "monsters" of the classic authors to the educational optimists at the end of the 20th century. The results show that the images of teachers in school novels are almost without exception coherent, psychologically credible and consistent, and hardly any different from the images of teachers in the Swedish school novels used as comparison material. On the contrary, plenty of similarities are found. The comprehensive school reform, educational political discourse and teachers' feelings are realistically clarified in the school novels that describe the period. Keywords: literature image, school reform, school novel, teacher image, reflection, internal co-operation in school

“En ole tyhjäpää turha julkku” – Julkkisehdokasdiskurssin hegemonisoituminen 1990-luvun eduskuntavaaleissa

Pro gradu-tutkimukseni käsittelee niin sanottuja julkkisehdokkaita ja heidän representaatiotaan mediassa 1990-luvun eduskuntavaalien aikaan. Nyky-yhteiskunnassa julkkisehdokkaat näyttäytyvät itsestään selvänä ilmiönä, jonka alkuperälle ei juuri uhrata ajatuksia. Ilmiön taustalla on poliittisen kulttuurin muuttuminen yhä viihteellisemmäksi ja henkilökeskeisemmäksi. Poliitikot käyttäytyvät kuin julkisuuden henkilöt ja samalla julkisuuden henkilöt ovat pyrkineet poliitikoiksi. Lisäksi suomalaisessa vaalijärjestelmässä ei käytetä niin sanottuja listavaaleja, vaan äänestetään yksittäisiä ehdokkaita. Niinpä vaaleissa päähuomio kiinnittyy ehdokkaiden henkilökohtaisiin ominaisuuksiin ja yksilöiden välisiin kamppailuihin. Näissä olosuhteissa julkkisehdokkaat ovat potentiaalinen keino saavuttaa lisää näkyvyyttä ja herättää myös politiikasta vähän kiinnostuneiden äänestäjien mielenkiinto. Tutkimukseni ajallinen viitekehys on 1990-luku, sillä halusin selvittää mitkä ovat julkkisehdokasilmiön juuret ja miten ilmiö on kehittynyt. Oman tutkimukseni valossa vuoden 1991 eduskuntavaalit olivat julkkisehdokkaiden läpimurto. Keskeinen hypoteesini on, että media ei anna julkkisehdokkailla tasavertaisia mahdollisuuksia muiden ehdokkaiden kanssa esiintyä vakavasti otettavina ja ”oikeina” poliittisina ehdokkaina. Media puhuu julkkisehdokkaista alentuvasti ja asenteellisesti sekä heidän poliittisia kykyjään epäillen. Tämän asenteellisuuden tutkimiseksi tarkastelin kuutta valtakunnallista sanomalehteä (Helsingin Sanomat, Iltalehti, Ilta-Sanomat, Demari, Nykypäivä ja Suomenmaa) kolmien eduskuntavaalien ajalta. Tarkoituksena oli saada selville onko olemassa jonkinlainen hegemoninen julkkisehdokasdiskurssi, jonka seurauksena kaikista julkkisehdokkaista puhutaan samalla tavalla alentuvasti. Ilmiön taustoitukseksi selvitin julkisuuden teoriaa, politiikan ja viihdeteollisuuden suhdetta, parasosiaalisia suhteita sekä julkkisehdokkaiden historiaa. Hegemonisen diskurssin piirteitä tutkin puolestaan kriittisen diskurssianalyysin keinoin. Aluksi tarkastelin millaisia representaatioita, identiteettejä ja suhteita diskurssissa luodaan. Tämän jälkeen tutkin diskurssin ideologisuutta ja hegemonisuutta. Julkkisehdokasdiskurssi näyttäytyi 1990-luvun sanomalehdissä vaihtoehdottomana ja sen sosiaalinen alkuperä pimittyi vuosikymmenen kuluessa. Näin ollen diskurssi hegemonisoitui ja 2000-luvulle tultaessa siitä on muodostunut hyvin itsestään selvä puhetapa, jota ei kyseenalaisteta. Julkkisehdokkaita paheksutaan yleisesti, vaikka puolueet saavat julkkisehdokkaiden kautta näkyvyyttä, media myy heidän avullaan tuotteitaan ja äänestäjät saavat eduskuntaan tuoreita ja ”ryvettymättömiä” kansanedustajia. Pro gradu -tutkimukseni tekee hegemonisen julkkisehdokasdiskurssin näkyväksi, mutta vain media kykenee haastamaan vallitsevan