Non-reductive Physicalism, Irreducibility of the Mental and the Problem of Mental Causation : A study of Donald Davidson's and Georg Henrik von Wright's positions in the philosophy of mind

In this study I consider what kind of perspective on the mind body problem is taken and can be taken by a philosophical position called non-reductive physicalism. Many positions fall under this label. The form of non-reductive physicalism which I discuss is in essential respects the position taken by Donald Davidson (1917-2003) and Georg Henrik von Wright (1916-2003). I defend their positions and discuss the unrecognized similarities between their views. Non-reductive physicalism combines two theses: (a) Everything that exists is physical; (b) Mental phenomena cannot be reduced to the states of the brain. This means that according to non-reductive physicalism the mental aspect of humans (be it a soul, mind, or spirit) is an irreducible part of the human condition. Also Davidson and von Wright claim that, in some important sense, the mental aspect of a human being does not reduce to the physical aspect, that there is a gap between these aspects that cannot be closed. I claim that their arguments for this conclusion are convincing. I also argue that whereas von Wright and Davidson give interesting arguments for the irreducibility of the mental, their physicalism is unwarranted. These philosophers do not give good reasons for believing that reality is thoroughly physical. Notwithstanding the materialistic consensus in the contemporary philosophy of mind the ontology of mind is still an uncharted territory where real breakthroughs are not to be expected until a radically new ontological position is developed. The third main claim of this work is that the problem of mental causation cannot be solved from the Davidsonian - von Wrightian perspective. The problem of mental causation is the problem of how mental phenomena like beliefs can cause physical movements of the body. As I see it, the essential point of non-reductive physicalism - the irreducibility of the mental - and the problem of mental causation are closely related. If mental phenomena do not reduce to causally effective states of the brain, then what justifies the belief that mental phenomena have causal powers? If mental causes do not reduce to physical causes, then how to tell when - or whether - the mental causes in terms of which human actions are explained are actually effective? I argue that this - how to decide when mental causes really are effective - is the real problem of mental causation. The motivation to explore and defend a non-reductive position stems from the belief that reductive physicalism leads to serious ethical problems. My claim is that Davidson's and von Wright's ultimate reason to defend a non-reductive view comes back to their belief that a reductive understanding of human nature would be a narrow and possibly harmful perspective. The final conclusion of my thesis is that von Wright's and Davidson's positions provide a starting point from which the current scientistic philosophy of mind can be critically further explored in the future.

Expected Performance of the ATLAS Experiment - Detector, Trigger and Physics

A detailed study is presented of the expected performance of the ATLAS detector. The reconstruction of tracks, leptons, photons, missing energy and jets is investigated, together with the performance of b-tagging and the trigger. The physics potential for a variety of interesting physics processes, within the Standard Model and beyond, is examined. The study comprises a series of notes based on simulations of the detector and physics processes, with particular emphasis given to the data expected from the first years of operation of the LHC at CERN.

Proofs, Paradoxes, and Probabilities : The Logical Turn of Philosophy in Finland

This monograph describes the emergence of independent research on logic in Finland. The emphasis is placed on three well-known students of Eino Kaila: Georg Henrik von Wright (1916-2003), Erik Stenius (1911-1990), and Oiva Ketonen (1913-2000), and their research between the early 1930s and the early 1950s. The early academic work of these scholars laid the foundations for today's strong tradition in logic in Finland and also became internationally recognized. However, due attention has not been given to these works later, nor have they been comprehensively presented together. Each chapter of the book focuses on the life and work of one of Kaila's aforementioned students, with a fourth chapter discussing works on logic by authors who would later become known within other disciplines. Through an extensive use of correspondence and other archived material, some insight has been gained into the persons behind the academic personae. Unique and unpublished biographical material has been available for this task. The chapter on Oiva Ketonen focuses primarily on his work on what is today known as proof theory, especially on his proof theoretical system with invertible rules that permits a terminating root-first proof search. The independency of the parallel postulate is proved as an example of the strength of root-first proof search. Ketonen was to our knowledge Gerhard Gentzen's (the 'father' of proof theory) only student. Correspondence and a hitherto unavailable autobiographic manuscript, in addition to an unpublished article on the relationship between logic and epistemology, is presented. The chapter on Erik Stenius discusses his work on paradoxes and set theory, more specifically on how a rigid theory of definitions is employed to avoid these paradoxes. A presentation by Paul Bernays on Stenius' attempt at a proof of the consistency of arithmetic is reconstructed based on Bernays' lecture notes. Stenius correspondence with Paul Bernays, Evert Beth, and Georg Kreisel is discussed. The chapter on Georg Henrik von Wright presents his early work on probability and epistemology, along with his later work on modal logic that made him internationally famous. Correspondence from various archives (especially with Kaila and Charlie Dunbar Broad) further discusses his academic achievements and his experiences during the challenging circumstances of the 1940s.

Kulttuurisia kohtaamisia : Suomalaiset kuvataiteilijat ja Rooma 1800-luvulla

Dozens of Finnish artists, practically all the professional sculptors and painters, travelled to and stayed in Rome during the 19th century. The study at hand concentrates for the first time on the Finnish artists in Rome in corpore, and analyses their way of life based on a broad variety of previously unknown and unexplored sources from a number of archives in both Scandinavia and Rome. The extensive corpus of source material is scrutinized with microhistorical precision from the point of view of cultural history. The new information thus achieved adds to the previous knowledge of Rome s often overlooked importance as a source of inspiration in Scandinavian culture in general and significantly clarifies our understanding of the development of Finnish artistic life and cultural identity in the 19th century. The study proves that in Finland, like in all of Europe, the stay in Rome was considered to be a necessary part of becoming a true artist. Already the journey was an integral part of the encounter with Rome, corresponding with the civilized ideal of the period. The stay in Rome provided a northern artist with overwhelming opportunities that were incomparable to the unestablished and modest forms of artistic life Finland could offer. Without domestic artistic institutions or traditions, the professional status of Finnish painters and sculptors took shape abroad, firstly through the encounter with Rome and the different networks the Finnish artists belonged to during and after their stay in the eternal city. The Finnish artists were an integral part of the international artistic community in the cultural capital of Europe, which gave a totally new impetus to their work and contributed to their cosmopolitan identification. For these early masters of Finnish art, the Scandinavian communality and universal artistic identity seemed to be more significant than their nationality. In all, the scrutiny of Finnish artists in their wide social, ideological and international framework gives an interesting aspect to the cultural ambiance of the 19th century, in both Rome and Finland. The study highlights many long-forgotten artists who were influential in shaping Finnish art, culture and identity in their time.

Murtuma mieheydessä. Aikuisiän selkäydinvamma ja maskuliinisuuden rakentuminen.

Tutkimukseni tavoitteena oli ensinnäkin selvittää, miten aikuisiällä tapahtunut vammautuminen uhkaa maskuliinista identiteettiä. Olin kiinnostunut niistä vammaisuuteen liittyvistä sosiaalisista prosesseista, joiden takia maskuliinisuus joutuu vammautumisen myötä koetukselle. Toiseksi halusin selvittää, miten haastattelemani selkäydinvammaiset miehet rakentavat maskuliinista identiteettiään. Tutkimukseni teoreettisena taustana toimi yhtäältä vammaistutkimuksen piirissä tehty, vammaisten elettyä kokemusta tarkasteleva tutkimus, toisaalta kriittinen miestutkimus, josta erityisesti R.W. Connellin teoria hegemonisesta maskuliinisuudesta. Tämän laadullisen tutkimuksen kohdejoukkona oli kahdeksan 23–68-vuotiasta miestä, joiden selkäydin oli vaurioitunut aikuisiällä tapahtuneen tapaturman seurauksena. Teemahaastattelut toteutettiin vuoden 2010 kevään ja syksyn aikana ja ne käsittelivät vammautumisen kokemusta ja sen seurauksia muun muassa miesten toimintakykyyn, sosiaalisiin suhteisiin, seksuaalisuuteen ja maskuliinisuuteen. Analyysivaiheessa tukeuduin grounded theoryn aineistolähtöiseen teemoitteluun. Haastatteluiden lisäksi tein lyhyen ekskursion pääkaupunkiseudulla sijaitsevaan kauppakeskukseen, jossa kiertelin pyörätuolissa istuen. Hyödynsin tekemiäni havaintoja esteettömyydestä ja sosiaalisesta vuorovaikutuksesta analyysissäni. Tutkimuksessa kävi selväksi, että vammautuminen oli uhannut haastateltujen maskuliinisuutta eri tavoin. Miehet olivat pelänneet menettäneensä itsenäisyytensä, toimintakykynsä, ihmissuhteensa ja näiden myötä myös mieheytensä. Kotiuduttuaan heille olikin ollut tärkeää todistaa sekä itselleen että läheisilleen olevansa edelleen itsenäisesti pärjääviä miehiä. Useimmille miehille vammautuminen oli myös johtanut ajoittaiseen yksityisyyden menettämiseen. Miehet kertoivat, että pyörätuoli herättää huomiota ja johtaa tungetteleviin katseisiin, kysymyksiin ja kosketuksiin. Totesin, että tällainen avulias tungettelu kuluttaa maskuliinista identiteettiä, koska se rikkoo kulttuurista käsitystä, jonka mukaan miehen kuuluu pärjätä ilman toisten apua. Toisaalta osa miehistä myös koki, että näkyvän vammansa takia heitä ajoittain myös vältellään. Arkisissa kohtaamisissa haastatellut pyrkivät rikkomaan vammaisuutta koskevia stereotypioita korostamalla maskuliinisia piirteitään. Haastateltavat liittivät kulttuurisesti arvostettuun maskuliinisuuteen käsityksiä itsenäisestä pärjäämisestä, urheilullisuudesta, teknisestä taitavuudesta, emotionaalisesta järkkymättömyydestä ja seksuaalisesta suorituskyvystä. Miehet kokivat, että vammaisuuden takia heidän maskuliinisuutensa voidaan nähdä viallisena tai puutteellisena. Tämän takia he pyrkivät maskuliinisuuden performatiiveissaan minimoimaan oman heikkouden ja riippuvaisuuden julkitulemista ja sen sijaan korostivat hegemonisen maskuliinisuuden mukaisia piirteitä. Tarkastelin tätä maskuliinisuuden tekemistä erityisesti parisuhteen, työn ja esteellisen tilan konteksteissa. Haastateltavat kertoivat, että vammautumisesta seurannut fyysinen ja henkinen rasitus oli asettanut heidän parisuhteensa koetukselle. Kotitöiden tekemisen kautta miehet neuvottelivat vastuullisuudestaan ja pärjäämisestään. Kaikkien miesten maskuliininen identiteetti näytti nojaavan työn tekemiseen ja sen tuomaan statukseen. Miesten suhdetta esteelliseen tilaan väritti jatkuva rajankäynti avun tarpeen ja miehisen kunnian välillä.