Traditional Village Governance (Desa Adat) and Inter-ethnic Conflict in Bali : A Study of Conflict between Balinese and Migrants: Cases from Municipality of Denpasar

Regional autonomy in Indonesia was initially introduced as a means of pacifying regional disappointment at the central government. Not only did the Regional Autonomy Law of 1999 give the Balinese a chance to express grievance regarding the centralist policies of the Jakarta government but also provided an opportunity to return to the regional, exclusive, traditional village governance (desa adat). As a result, the problems faced by the island, particularly ethnic conflicts, are increasingly handled by the mechanism of this traditional type of governance. Traditional village governance with regard to ethnic conflicts (occurring) between Balinese and migrants has never been systematically analyzed. Existing analyses emphasized only the social context, but do not explain either the cause of conflicts and the ensuing problems entails or the virtues of traditional village governance mechanisms for mediating in the conflict. While some accounts provide snapshots, they lack both theoretical and conflict study perspective. The primary aim of this dissertation is to explore the expression and the causes of conflict between the Balinese and migrants and to advance the potential of traditional village governance as a means of conflict resolution with particular reference to the municipality of Denpasar. One conclusion of the study is that the conflict between the Balinese and migrants has been expressed on the level of situation/contradiction, attitudes, and behavior. Yet the driving forces behind the conflict itself consist of the following factors: absence of cooperation; incompatible position and perception; inability to communicate effectively; and problem of inequality and injustice, which comes to the surface as a social, cultural, and economic problem. This complex of factors fuels collective fear for the future of both groups. The study concludes that traditional village governance mechanisms as a means of conflict resolution have not yet been able to provide an enduring resolution for the conflict. Analysis shows that the practice of traditional village governance is unable to provide satisfactory mechanisms for the conflict as prescribed by conflict resolution theory. Traditional village governance, which is derived from the exclusive Hindu-Balinese culture, is accepted as more legitimate among the Balinese than the official governance policies. However, it is not generally accepted by most of the Muslim migrants. In addition, traditional village governance lacks access to economic instruments, which weakens its capacity to tackle the economic roots of the conflict. Thus the traditional mechanisms of migrant ordinance , as practiced by the traditional village governance have not yet been successful in penetrating all aspects of the conflict. Finally, one of the main challenges for traditional village governance s legal development is the creation of a regional legal system capable of accommodating rapid changes in line with the national and international legal practices. The framing of the new laws should be responsive to the aspirations of a changing society. It should not only protect the various Balinese communities interests, but also that of other ethnic groups, especially those of the minority. In other words, the main challenge to traditional village governance is its ability to develop flexibility and inclusiveness.

The Population Consequences of Sex and Conflict

Natural selection generally operates at the level of the individual, or more specifically at the level of the gene. As a result, individual selection does not always favour traits which benefit the population or species as a whole. The spread of an individual gene may even act to the detriment of the organism in which it finds. Thus selection at the level of the individual can affect processes at the level of the organism, group or even at the level of the species. As most behaviours ultimately affect births, deaths and the distribution of individuals, it seems inevitable that behavioural decisions will have an impact on population dynamics and population densities. Behavioural decisions can often involve costs through allocation of energy into behavioural strategies, such as the investment into armaments involved in fighting over resources or increased mortality due to injury or increased predation risk. Similarly, behaviour may act o to benefit the population, in terms of higher survival and increased fecundity. Examples include increased investment through parental care, choosing a mate based on the nuptial gifts they may supply and choosing territories in the face of competition. Investigating the impact of behaviour on population ecology may seem like a trivial task, but it is likely to have important consequences at different levels. For example, antagonistic behaviour may occasionally become so extreme that it increases the risk of extinction, and such extinction risk may have important implications for conservation. As a corollary, any such behaviour may also act as a macroevolutionary force, weeding out populations with traits which, whilst beneficial to the individuals in the short term, ultimately result in population extinction. In this thesis, I examine how behaviours, specifically conflict and competition over a resource and aspects of behaviour involved in sexual selection, can affect population densities, and what the implications are for the evolution and ecology of the populations in question. It is found that both behaviours related to individual conflict and mating strategies can have an effect at the level of the population, but that various factors, such as a feedback between selection and population densities or macroevolution caused by species extinctions, may act to limit the intensity of conflicts that we observe in nature.

Cooperation and conflict in conspecific brood parasitism : an alternative reproductive tactic

Interactions among individuals give rise to both cooperation and conflict. Individuals will behave selfishly or altruistically depending on which gives the higher payoff. The reproductive strategies of many animals are flexible and several alternative tactics may be present from which the most suitable one is applied. Generally, alternative reproductive tactics may be defined as a response to competition from individuals of the same sex. These alternative reproductive tactics are means by which individuals may fine-tune their fitness to the reigning circumstances and which are shaped by the environment individuals are occupying as well as by the behaviour of other individuals sharing the environment. By employing such alternative ways of achieving reproductive output, individuals may alleviate competition from others. Conspecific brood parasitism (CBP) is an alternative reproductive strategy found in several egg laying animal groups, and it is especially common among waterfowl. Within this alternative reproductive strategy, four reproductive options can be identified. These four options represent a continuum from low reproductive effort coupled with low fitness returns, to high reproductive effort and consequently high benefits. It may not be evident how individuals should allocate reproductive effort between eggs laid in their own nest vs. in nests of others, however. Limited fecundity will constrain the number of eggs donated by a parasite, but also the tendency for hosts to accept parasitic eggs may affect the allocation decision. Furthermore, kinship, individual quality and the costs of breeding may play a role in complicating the allocation decision. In this thesis, I view the seemingly paradoxical effects of kinship on conflict resolution in the context of alternative reproductive tactics, examining the resulting features of cooperation and conflict. Conspecific brood parasitism sets the stage for investigating these questions. By using both empirical and theoretical approaches, I examine the nature of CBP in a brood parasitic duck, the Barrow's goldeneye (Bucephala islandica). The theoretical chapter of this thesis gives rise to four main conclusions. Firstly, variation in individual quality plays a central role in shaping breeding strategies. Secondly, kinship plays a central role in the evolution of CBP. Thirdly, egg recognition ability may affect the prevalence of parasitism. If egg recognition is perfect, higher relatedness between host and parasite facilitates CBP. Finally, I show that the relative costs of egg laying and post-laying care play a so far underestimated role in determining the prevalence of parasitism. The costs of breeding may outweigh possible inclusive fitness benefits accrued from receiving eggs from relatives. Several of the patterns brought out by the theoretical work are then confirmed empirically in the following chapters. Findings include confirmation of the central role of relatedness in determining the extent of parasitism as well as inducing a counterintuitive host clutch reduction. Furthermore, I demonstrate a cost of CBP inflicted on hosts, as well as results suggesting that host age reflects individual quality, affecting the ability to overcome costs inflicted by CBP. In summary, I demonstrate both theoretically and empirically the presence of cooperation and conflict in the interactions between conspecific parasites and their hosts. The field of CBP research has traditionally been divided, but the first steps have now been taken toward the acceptance of the opposite side of the divide. Especially the theoretical findings of chapter 1 offer the possibility to view seemingly contrasting results of various studies within the same framework, and may direct future research toward more general features underlying differences in the patterns of CBP between populations or species.

Kaupungin savut ja käryt : Helsingin ilmansuojelu 1945-1982

The smoke and fumes of the city: Air protection in Helsinki from 1945 to 1982 This dissertation examines air pollution and air protection in post-war Helsinki. The period studied ends in 1982 when the Air Protection Act entered into force, thus institutionalising air protection in Finland as a socially governed environmental matter. The dissertation is based on the research traditions of environmental politics and urban environmental history. The development of air protection is approached from the perspectives of politicisation and institutionalisation. The dissertation also investigates how air pollution grew into a social issue and presents various discursive ways of analysing air pollution and protection. The primary research material consists of municipal documents and newspapers, while supplementary material includes journal articles and interviews. The event history of air protection is described through an analysis of the material, including source criticism. The social ways of dealing with air pollution and the emergence of air protection are analysed in the light of case-specific air quality disputes from both factual and discursive perspectives. This approach enables the contextualisation of the development of air protection as part of the local history of post-war Helsinki. The dissertation presents the major sources of air pollution in Helsinki and describes the deterioration of air quality in a society which emphasised the primacy of economic prosperity. The air issue emerged during the 1950s in neighbourhood disputes and was exacerbated into a larger problem in the late 1960s. Concurrent to the formation of the field of environmental protection in Finland, an air protection organisation was established in the 1970s in Helsinki. As a result, air protection became a regular part of municipal government. Air protection in Helsinki developed from small-scale policies focused on individual cases into a large, institutionalised air protection system managed by experts. The dissertation research material gave rise to the following major research themes: the economic dimension of the air issue, the role of science in the formation of the environmental problem, and the establishment of norms for acceptable air quality and reasonable limits to air pollution in the urban environment. The paper also discusses the inequitable distribution of the negative effects of air pollution between the residents of different districts. The dissertation concludes that air protection in Helsinki became a local success story although it was long marred by inefficiency and partial failure.

Disarming identities : Ethnic identities in conflict resolution: Hindrance or helpful resource?

This thesis proposes that national or ethnic identity is an important and overlooked resource in conflict resolution. Usually ethnic identity is seen both in international relations and in social psychology as something that fuels the conflict. Using grounded theory to analyze data from interactive problem-solving workshops between Palestinians and Israelis a theory about the role of national identity in turning conflict into protracted conflict is developed. Drawing upon research from, among others, social identity theory, just world theory and prejudice it is argued that national identity is a prime candidate to provide the justification of a conflict party’s goals and the dehumanization of the other necessary to make a conflict protracted. It is not the nature of national identity itself that lets it perform this role but rather the ability to mobilize a constituency for social action (see Stürmer, Simon, Loewy, & Jörger, 2003). Reicher & Hopkins (1996) have demonstrated that national identity is constructed by political entrepreneurs to further their cause, even if this construction is not a conscious one. Data from interactive problem-solving workshops suggest that the possibility of conflict resolution is actually seen by participants as a direct threat of annihilation. Understanding the investment necessary to make conflict protracted this reaction seems plausible. The justification for ones actions provided by national identity makes the conflict an integral part of a conflict party’s identity. Conflict resolution, it is argued, is therefore a threat to the very core of the current national identity. This may explain why so many peace agreements have failed to provide the hoped for resolution of conflict. But if national identity is being used in a constructionist way to attain political goals, a political project of conflict resolution, if it is conscious of the constructionist process, needs to develop a national identity that is independent of conflict and therefore able to accommodate conflict resolution. From this understanding it becomes clear why national identity needs to change, i.e. be disarmed, if conflict resolution is to be successful. This process of disarmament is theorized to be similar to the process of creating and sustaining protracted conflict. What shape and function this change should have is explored from the understanding of the role of national identity in supporting conflict. Ideas how track-two diplomacy efforts, such as the interactive problem-solving workshop, could integrate a process by both conflict parties to disarm their respective identities are developed.

Silva Fennica Vol. 16, 1982.

Julkaistu Silva Fennica Vol. 17(1) -numeron liitteenä.

Oikeutta politiikan ehdoilla: Kansanmurhan vastainen sopimus Yhdistyneissä kansakunnissa vuosina 1951-1982

Kansanmurhan vastainen sopimus luotiin toisen maailmansodan jälkeen yhdessä muun Yhdistyneiden kansakuntien ihmisoikeusjärjestelmän kanssa vastaukseksi edellisten vuosikymmenten ihmisoikeusrikkomuksiin. Näistä pyrkimyksistä huolimatta sopimuksella ei ollut merkittävää roolia ihmisoikeusrikkomusten estämisessä aina 1990-luvulle saakka, ja useat väkivaltakampanjat ylsivät vuosikymmenten aikana kansanmurhan asteelle sopimuksen olemassaolosta huolimatta. Tämän tutkielman tavoitteena on arvioida, mitkä tekijät vaikuttivat sopimuksen marginaaliseen asemaan 1950-80 -luvuilla. Aiemmassa tutkimuskirjallisuudessa heikkoa asemaa on pyritty selittämään esimerkiksi sopimuksen tarpeettomuuteen sekä sen juridisiin ongelmiin tukeutuvien selitysten avulla. Vaikka tutkielma osin jakaakin näiden näkökulmien paikkansapitävyyden, argumentoi se myös, että sopimuksen asema liittyy oleellisesti kansainvälisen oikeuden ja kansainvälisen politiikan vuorovaikutteiseen suhteeseen. Kansainvälinen oikeus toisaalta vaikuttaa kansainvälisen politiikan luonteeseen, mutta myös kansainvälisen yhteisön parissa vallitsevat normit vaikuttavat siihen, minkälainen asema mahdollisesti ristiriitaisilla oikeusperiaatteilla on. Tutkielma käyttää lähdeaineistonaan Yhdistyneiden kansakuntien poliittisissa elimissä kansanmurhiin liittyneitä keskusteluita, ja pyrkii aineiston avulla kuvaamaan minkälainen asema kansanmurhan vastaisella sopimuksella oli kansainvälisen yhteisön normihierarkiassa. Tutkielma käyttää teoreettisena viitekehyksenään mukaelmaa Martti Koskenniemen esittelemästä ’lain’ ja ’politiikan’ dikotomiasta argumentin todistusvoimalle kansainvälisessä toiminnassa. Koska kansainvälinen toimija häivyttää argumentin poliittisen luonteen pukemalla argumentin lain verhoon, kertovat valtioiden valinnat käyttää tiettyjä oikeusperiaatteita näiden oikeusperiaatteiden hyväksytystä roolista kansainvälisinä normeina. Tähän viitekehykseen tukeutuen kansanmurhan vastaisesta sopimuksesta käydyn keskustelun määrä, sekä toisaalta sopimuksen rooli valtioiden poliittisessa argumentaatiossa luovat kuvan sopimuksen asemasta kansainvälisen yhteisön normihierarkiassa, sekä myös itsenäisesti vaikuttavat tähän asemaan. Tutkielma pyrkii valikoituihin tapaustutkimuksiin keskittyvän analyysin avulla erottamaan tekijöitä, jotka vaikuttivat siihen, millä tavoin valtiot käyttivät sopimusta poliittisessa keskustelussa. Jo aikaisessa vaiheessa tutkimusprosessia havaittiin, että kansanmurhan vastaisen sopimuksen heikko asema heijastui työhypoteesin mukaisesti sopimukseen liittyneiden keskusteluiden pienenä määränä. Lisäksi havaittiin, että YK:n elimissä käydyt keskustelut liittyivät harvoin, ainoastaan kahdessa tapauksessa, suoranaisesti kansanmurhan vastaiseen sopimukseen. Useimmiten keskustelu kansanmurhasta oli joko ainoastaan laajemman keskustelun sivujuonne, tai puuttui tyystin keskustelusta, jossa se olisi voinut olla mukana. Tapaustutkimuksiksi valittujen keskusteluiden analyysi osoittaa, että sopimuksesta käyty keskustelu muodostui usein kylmän sodan rintamalinjojen mukaiseksi, ja molemmat leirit mobilisoivat sopimuksen ideologisen kamppailun välineeksi. Toisaalta kylmään sotaan perustunut viitekehys vaikutti sopimuksen aseman taustalla vain pinnallisesti. Kansainvälisen yhteisön rakenne oli sopimuksesta käydyissä keskusteluissa moniuloitteinen, ja ideologian lisäksi myös muut tekijät vaikuttivat keskustelujen rakentumiseen. Ideologisesti vastakkaiset blokit myös jakoivat yhteisen käsityksen siitä, mitä kansainvälisen turvallisuuden konsepti piti sisällään, ja sekä Yhdysvallat että Neuvostoliitto suhtautuivat penseästi sopimuksen käyttöön sen rajoittaessa valtioiden suvereniteettia. Keskusteluista hahmottuu myös pienten valtioiden aktiivinen rooli sopimukseen tukeutumisessa suurvaltoihin verrattuna. Pienet valtiot saattoivat olla keskustelun aloittajina ainoastaan suurvaltojen palvelijoita, mutta voidaan myös arvioida johtuiko pienten valtioiden aktiivinen rooli niiden positiivisemmasta suhteesta kansainvälisen oikeusregiimin muodostumiseen. Tutkielma erottaa myös makrotason ongelmia, jotka vaikuttivat YK-järjestelmän toimintaan tutkimusajanjakson aikana. YK-järjestelmällä oli vaikeuksia puuttua maiden sisäisiin konflikteihin, mikä oli suoraan kytköksissä jännitteeseen suvereniteetin ja kansanmurhan vastaiseen sopimukseen sisältyvän puuttumisen velvoitteen välillä kansainvälisinä normeina. Toisaalta vaikeudet liittyivät myös tutkimusajanjakson aikana vallinneeseen, valtiolähtöiseen turvallisuuskäsitykseen. Vuoden 1982 Sabran ja Shatilan tapaus toi lisäksi esiin vaikeudet, jotka sopimuksen historiallinen suhde Holokaustin perintöön toi sopimuksen soveltamiseen. Peilattaessa tutkimustuloksia 1990-luvulla tapahtuneeseen sopimuksen aseman vahvistumiseen, voidaan todeta, että juuri tutkielmassa kuvattujen rakenteiden muutos osittain mahdollisti muutoksen sopimuksen asemassa. Kylmän sodan päättyminen toisaalta poisti (ainakin hetkellisesti) monia tutkielmassa kuvattuja jännitteitä, mutta myös kansainvälinen normisto on aidosti muuttunut kahden viime vuosikymmenen aikana. Kansainvälisen suojeluvelvoitteen (responsibility to protect) normi on asettanut suvereniteetin normin kunnioittamisen ehdolliseksi ihmisoikeuksien kunnioittamiselle, ja inhimillisen turvallisuuden konsepti on noussut yhä voimakkaammin turvallisuusajattelun valtavirtaan valtiolähtöisen turvallisuuskäsityksen rinnalle.

Jouko Turkan Teatterikorkeakoulun kauden yhteiskunnallinen kontekstuaalisuus vuosina 1982 - 1985

The subject of my doctoral thesis is the social contextuality of Finnish theater director, Jouko Turkka's (b. 1942) educational tenure in the Theater Academy of Finland 1982 1985. Jouko Turkka announced in the opening speech of his rectorship in 1982 that Finnish society had undergone a social shift into a new cultural age, and that actors needed new facilities like capacity, flexibility, and ability for renewal in their work. My sociological research reveals that Turkka adapted cultural practices and norms of new capitalism and new liberalism, and built a performance environment for actors' educational work, a real life simulation of a new capitalist workplace. Actors educational praxis became a cultural performance, a media spectacle. Turkka's tenure became the most commented upon and discussed era in Finnish postwar theater history. The sociological method of my thesis is to compare information of sociological research literature about new capitalist work, and Turkka's educational theater work. In regard to the conceptions of legitimation, time, dynamics, knowledge, and social narrative consubstantial changes occurred simultaneously in both contexts of workplace. I adapt systems and chaos theory's concepts and modules when researching how a theatrical performance self-organizes in a complex social space and the space of Information. Ilya Prigogine's chaos theoretic concept, fluctuation, is the central social and aesthetic concept of my thesis. The chaos theoretic conception of the world was reflected in actors' pedagogy and organizational renewals: the state of far from equilibrium was the prerequisite of creativity and progress. I interpret the social and theater's aesthetical fluctuations as the cultural metaphor of new capitalism. I define the wide cultural feedback created by Turkka's tenure of educational praxis, and ideas adapted from the social context into theater education, as an autopoietic communicative process between theater education and society: as a black box, theater converted the virtual conception of the world into a concrete form of an actor's psychophysical praxis. Theater educational praxis performed socially contextual meanings referring to a subject's position in the social change of 1980s Finland. My other theoretic framework lies close to the American performance theory, with its close ties to the social sciences, and to the tradition of rhetoric and communication: theater's rhetorical utility materializes quotidian cultural practices in a theatrical performance, and helps the audience to research social situations and cultural praxis by mirroring them and creating an explanatory frame.