Democracy, Participation, and Deliberation in China : The discussion about democratic centralism in the official Chinese press, 1978-1981

This study examines the Chinese press discussion about democratic centralism in 1978-1981 in newspapers, political journals and academic journals distributed nationwide. It is thus a study of intellectual trends during the Hua Guofeng period and of methods, strategies, and techniques of public political discussion of the time. In addition, this study presents democratic centralism as a comprehensive theory of democracy and evaluates this theory. It compares the Chinese theory of democratic centralism with Western traditions of democracy, not only with the standard liberal theory but also with traditions of participatory and deliberative democracy, in order to evaluate whether the Chinese theory of democratic centralism forms a legitimate theory of democracy. It shows that the Chinese theory comes close to participatory types of democracy and shares a conception of democracy as communication with the theory of deliberative democracy. Therefore, the Chinese experience provides some empirical evidence of the practicability of these traditions of democracy. Simultaneously, this study uses experiences of participatory democracies outside of China to explain some earlier findings about the Chinese practices. This dissertation also compares Chinese theory with some common Western theories and models of Chinese society as well as with Western understandings of Chinese political processes. It thus aims at opening more dialogue between Chinese and Western political theories and understandings about Chinese polity. This study belongs to scholarly traditions of the history of ideas, political philosophy, comparative politics, and China studies. The main finding of this study is that the Chinese theory of democratic centralism is essentially a theory about democracy, but whether its scrupulous practicing alone would be sufficient for making a country a democracy depends on which established definition of democracy one applies and on what kind of democratic deficits are seen as being acceptable within a truly democratic system. Nevertheless, since the Chinese theory of democratic centralism fits well with some established definitions of democracy and since democratic deficits are a reality in all actual democracies, the Chinese themselves are talking about democracy in terms acceptable to Western political philosophy as well.

"Politiikka on kirkossa" : Keskustapuolueen kirkkopoliittisten tavoitteiden muotoutuminen vuosina 1966–1978

This study in church history deals with the formation of aims in the church politics of the Centre Party during a period of extensive politicisation in Finnish society – 1966 to 1978. The focus is on the processes of creating political input within the party organisation. The most important source material consists of the records of the highest party organs as well as material from the party office and the party’s committee for church politics. In the late 1960s, at a time of leftist radicalism in Finnish society, issues concerning the Church were seldom dealt with in the highest party organs, even though informal discussion took place within the party. This phase was followed by a conservative reaction in society during the 1970s. The rightist trend as well as the ongoing politicisation process substantially strengthened the role of church politics in the party. An aim of great importance was to prevent those supporters who belonged to the Lutheran revival movements from moving into the Finnish Christian League. Therefore it became increasingly important to prove that the Centre Party was defending the Church as well as so-called Christian values in state politics, e.g., by advocating religious instruction in schools. The Centre Party also defended the independence and legal status of the Church, at the same time positioning itself against Finland’s Social Democratic Party. Many party members were of the opinion that the church politics should have been about defending the Church and Christian values in state politics instead of defending the proportional share of the party’s seats in the ecclesiastical decision-making system. Nevertheless, the struggle for hegemony between the Centre Party and the Social Democrats was reflected in the Evangelical Lutheran Church particularly since 1973. Thus the aims of church politics were increasingly directed towards ecclesiastical elections and appointments in the 1970s. To justify its activities in church elections, the party stressed that it was not politicising the Church. To the contrary, it was asserted that the church leaders themselves had politicised the Church by favouring the Social Democrats. These alleged efforts to affiliate the Church with one political party were strictly condemned in the Centre Party. But when it came to the political parties’ activity in church elections, opinions diverged. Generally, the issues of church politics resembled those of the party’s trade union politics in the 1970s.

Naiset ja naisten puheet kirkolliskokouksen naispappeuskeskusteluissa vuosina 1974-1987

Women and women s words in discussions about the ordination of women in the General Synod between 1974 and 1987. In 1986, the General Synod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Finland approved the ordination of women. Prior to that decision, a considerable amount of discussion and debate took place about this renewal in both the Synod and the general public. The different points of view had divided the church and the people, and had placed the church under pressure to resolve the issue as soon as possible. At the same time, the changing climate in people s attitudes toward the church and the changing position of women in society clearly weighed in on this matter. The research material consists of the speeches about the ordination of women given by the women representatives in the General Synod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Finland between the years 1974 and 1987. The aim is to determine why these representatives wanted to ordain women as pastors, what kind of women pastors they wanted to have in the congregations, and what they wanted to change in the church through this renewal. The basic methods of the analysis include discourse analysis as well as the new rhetorics and some concepts used by Pierre Bourdieu. A framework, which I named rhetoric patterning, was developed to interpret the results. This framework has facilitated the identification of three effective discourses in the studied argumentation: the folk church discourse, the pastor image discourse and the church image discourse. According to the opinions of the women representatives, the concept of change turned out to be a very decisive factor as the church sought a way to reach its members. To maintain a good and modern image seemed very important for the church to be able to perform its task in the modern era. The women representatives presented the situation of the church in terms of contextual theology and took seriously the membership of all those baptized into the church. They were therefore ready to take into account the opinion of all church members. The problem was that even though the ordination of women was established, the fixed mental schemes of the people and the strong power structures of the church remained untouched. Women were allowed into a new area of church life, but with certain publicly pronounced and unconsciously recognized conditions. Did this change really mean greater equality between women and men, as was intended? Key words: ordination of women, General Synod, contextualization, discourse analysis.

Kummisetien katolinen kirkko : Kummisetä-trilogian ja Sopranos-televisiosarjan välittämä kuva roomalaiskatolisesta kirkosta

Tässä tutkielmassa tutkin millaisen kuvan Francis Ford Coppolan ohjaamat kolme Kummisetä-elokuvaa ja David Chasen luoman Sopranos-televisiosarjan kaksi ensimmäistä tuotantokautta antavat roomalaiskatolisesta kirkosta ja erityisesti Amerikassa toimivasta roomalaiskatolisesta kirkosta. Kummisetä-elokuvat valmistuivat vuosina 1972, 1974 ja 1990, Sopranos-sarjan kaksi ensimmäistä tuotantokautta taas esitettiin HBO-kanavalla ensimmäisen kerran vuosina 1999 ja 2000. Lähteet kattavat Amerikan katolisen kirkon historian 1900-luvun alusta aina 2000-luvun alkuun asti. Pyrin vastaamaan tutkielmassani siihen, millaisena lähteet kuvaavat katolisen ja onko kuvaukselle löydettävissä jotain syitä. Kummisetä-elokuvien kohdalla on paradoksaalista se, että ne kaikki kuvaavat menneisyyden eivätkä tekohetkensä tapahtumia, mikä mahdollisesti näkyy myös niiden tavassa kuvata katolista kirkkoa. Vaikuttaisi siltä, että varsinkin kahden ensimmäisen Kummisetä-elokuvan tapa kuvata Amerikan katolista kirkkoa pohjautuu pitkälti elokuvan tekohetken tunnelmiin. Elokuvien ohjaaja Francis Ford Coppola on myöntänyt käyttäneensä Kummisetä-elokuvien päähenkilöinä olevaa Corleone-perhettä Amerikan vertauskuvana. Elokuvien yksi kattava teema on eräänlainen maallistumiskehitys, jossa vanhan polven edustajan, don Vito Corleonen, arvot syrjäytyvät ja tilalle nousee uusi johtajapolvi Viton nuorimman pojan don Michael Corleonen hahmossa. Michael Corleone edustaa huomattavasti armottomampaa polvea kuin Vito eikä uskonto ja katolinen kirkko näy hänen elämässään juuri lainkaan. Michaelin kyyninen ja kylmäkin hahmo on mitä todennäköisemmin vertauskuva elokuvien tekohetken yleisistä tunnelmia, jolloin Watergate-skandaali kansallisella tasolla ja Vatikaanin II konsiili ja paavin kiertokirje Humanae Vitae muokkasivat rajusti perinteisen katolisuuden ja amerikkalaisuuden identiteettiä. Kolmas Kummisetä-elokuva käsittelee lähes kokonaan paavi Johannes Paavali I:n lyhyeksi jäänyttä paaviuskautta vuodelta 1978 osittain fiktioin keinoin. Elokuvan yhtäläisyydet rikoskirjailija David Yallopin menestyskirjaan In Gods Name. An Investigation into the Murder of Pope John Paul I, jossa kirjailija esittää paavin tulleen kuurian virkamiesten ja mafiosoiden murhaamaksi, ovat selkeät. Kirkosta luodaan kuva toisaalta armottomona valtakoneistona, mutta toisaalta myös hengellisenä yhteisönä, josta katuvan ihmisen on mahdollisuus löytää apua. Sopranos-televisiosarja jatkaa kahdella ensimmäisellä tuotantokaudellaan saman maallistumiskehityksen kulkua kuin kaksi ensimmäistä Kummisetä-elokuvaakin. Päähenkilö Tony Soprano perheineen on lähes täysin irrallaan katolisesta perinteestä eivätkä he enää tunne sen oppejakaan kunnolla. Silti he mieltävät itsensä katolilaisiksi. Tämä vastaa joiltain osin tutkimustuloksia todellisista amerikkalaisista katolilaisista. Kaiken kaikkiaan Kummisetä-elokuvatrilogia ja Sopranos-televisiosarja antavat katolisesta kirkosta hyvin monipuolisen ja joissain asioissa totuudenmukaisenkin kuvan, joskin tekijöiden oma henkilöhistoria ja ajan skandaalit ovat väistämättä värittäneet kirkkokuvausta. Siten ne muodostavat värikkään läpileikkauksen Amerikan katolisen kirkon kehityksestä amerikanitalialaisessa yhteisössä 1900-luvun alusta 2000-luvun alkuun.

Silva Fennica Vol. 12, 1978.

Julkaistu Silva Fennica Vol. 12(4) -numeron liitteenä.

Lokan ja Porttipahdan tekojärvien tilan kehittymisestä vuosina 1971-1974

Engl. summary: Data on the water quality in Lokka and Porttipahta reservoirs during the years 1971-1974

Vesihuoltolaitokset 31.12.1974

Water supply and sewer systems 31.12.1974.

Inarinjärven tutkimus vuonna 1974

Engl. summary: Data on the water quality in Lake Inari in the year 1974