The Phraseology and Structure of Latin Building Inscriptions in Roman North Africa

This study analyses the diction of Latin building inscriptions. Despite its importance, this topic has rarely been discussed before: the most substantial contribution on the subject is a short dissertation by Klaus Gast (1965) that focuses on 100 inscriptions dating mostly from the Republican period. Marietta Horster (2001) also touched upon this theme in her thesis on imperial building inscriptions. I have collected my source material in North Africa because more Latin building inscriptions dating from the Imperial period have survived there than in any other area of the Roman Empire. By means of a thorough and independent survey, I have assembled all relevant African Latin building inscriptions datable to the Roman period (between 146 BC and AD 425), 1002 texts, into a corpus. These inscriptions are all fully edited in Appendix 1; Appendix 2 contains references to earlier editions. To facilitate search operations, both are also available in electronic form. They are downloadable from the address http://www.helsinki.fi/hum/kla/htm/jatkoopinnot.htm. Chapter one is an introduction dealing with the nature of building inscriptions as source material. Chapter two offers a statistical overview of the material. The following main section of the work falls into five chapters, each of which analyses one main part of a building inscription. An average building inscription can be divided into five parts: the starting phrase opens the inscription (a dedication to gods, for example), the subject part identifies the builder, the object part describes the constructed or repaired building, the predicate part records the building activity and the supplement part offers additional information on the project (it can specify the funding, for instance). These chapters are systematic and chronological and their purpose is to register and interpret the phrases used, to analyse reasons for their use and for their popularity among the different groups of builders. Chapter eight, which follows the main section of the work, creates a typology of building inscriptions based on their structure. It also presents the most frequently attested types of building inscriptions. The conclusion describes, on a general level, how the diction of building inscriptions developed during the period of study and how this striking development resulted from socio-economic changes that took place in Romano-African society during Antiquity. This study shows that the phraseology of building inscriptions had a clear correlation both with the type of builder and with the date of carving. Private builders tended to accentuate their participation (especially its financial side) in the project; honouring the emperor received more emphasis in the building inscriptions set up by communities; the texts produced by the army were concise. The chronological development is so clear that it enables stylistic dating. At the beginning of the imperial period the phrases were clear, concrete, formal and stereotyped but by Late Antiquity they have become vague, subjective, flexible, varied and even rhetorically or poetically coloured.

Melun sieto kaupunkielämän välttämättömyytenä : Melu ympäristöongelmana ja sen synnyttämien reaktioiden kulttuurinen käsittely Helsingissä

Tolerance of Noise as a Necessity of Urban Life. Noise pollution as an environmental problem and its cultural perceptions in the city of Helsinki This study looks at the noise pollution problem and the change in the urban soundscape in the city of Helsinki during the period from the 1950s to the present day. The study investigates the formation of noise problems, the politicization of the noise pollution problem, noise-related civic activism, the development of environmental policies on noise, and the expectations that urban dwellers have had concerning their everyday soundscape. Both so-called street noise and the noise caused by, e.g., neighbors are taken into account. The study investigates whether our society contains or has for some time contained cultural and other elements that place noise pollution as an essential or normal state of affairs as part of urban life. It is also discussed whether we are moving towards an artificial soundscape, meaning that the auditory reality, the soundscape, is more and more under human control. The concept of an artificial soundscape was used to crystallize the significance of human actions and the role of modern technology in shaping soundscapes and also to link the changes in the modern soundscape to the economic, political, and social changes connected to the modernization process. It was argued that the critical period defining noise pollution as an environmental problem were the years from the end of the 1960s to the early 1970s. It seems that the massive increase of noise pollution caused by road traffic and the introduction of the utopian traffic plans was the key point that launched the moral protest against the increase of noise pollution, and in general, against the basic structures and mindsets of society, including attitudes towards nature. The study argues that after noise pollution was politicized and institutionalized, the urban soundscape gradually became the target of systematic interventions. However, for various reasons, such as the inconsistency in decision making, our increased capacity to shape the soundscape has not resulted in a healthy or pleasant urban soundscape. In fact the number of people exposed to noise pollution is increasing. It is argued that our society contains cultural and other elements that urge us to see noise as a normal part of urban life. It is also argued that the possibility of experiencing natural, silent soundscapes seems to be the yardstick against which citizens of Helsinki have measured how successful we are in designing the (artificial) soundscape and if the actions of noise control have been effective. This work discusses whose interests it serves when we are asked to accept noise pollution as a normal state of affairs. It is also suggested that the quality of the artificial soundscape ought to be radically politicized, which might give all citizens a better and more equal chance to express their needs and wishes concerning the urban soudscape, and also to decide how it ought to be designed.

Ecological restoration of forests in Fennoscandia : Defining reference stand structures and immediate effects of restoration.

The first aim of this thesis was to explore the structural characteristics of near-natural forests and to quantify how human utilization has changed them. For this, we examined the stand characteristics in Norway spruce Picea abies (L.) Karst-dominated old-growth stands in northwestern Russia and in old Scots pine Pinus sylvestris L.-dominated stands in three regions from southern Finland to northwestern Russia. In the second study, we also compared stands with different degrees of human impact, from near-natural stands and stands selectively cut in the past to managed stands. Secondly, we used an experimental approach to study the short-term effects of different restorative treatments on forest structure and regeneration in managed Picea abies stands in southern Finland. Restorative treatments consisted of a partial cut combined with three levels of coarse woody debris retention, and a fire/no-fire treatment. In addition, we examined burned and unburned reference stands without cutting treatments. Results from near-natural Picea abies forests emphasize the dynamic character of old-growth forests, the variety of late-successional forest structures, and the fact that extended time periods are needed to attain certain late-successional stages with specific structural and habitat attributes, such as large-diameter deciduous trees and a variety of deadwood. The results from old Pinus sylvestris-dominated forests showed that human impact in the form of forest utilization and fire exclusion has strongly modified and reduced the structural complexity of stands. Consequently, small protected forest fragments in Finland may not serve as valid natural reference areas for forest restoration. However, results from the restoration experiment showed that early-successional natural stand characteristics can be restored to structurally impoverished managed Picea abies stands, despite a significant portion of wood volume being harvested. A variety of restoration methods is needed, due to differences in the condition of the forest when restoration is initiated and the variety of successional stages of forest structures after anthropogenic and natural disturbances. Keywords: dead wood, disturbance dynamic, fire, near-natural stand, rehabilitation, succession

Glycoalkaloid Content and Starch Structure in Solanum Species and Interspecific Somatic Potato Hybrids

When genome sections of wild Solanum species are bred into the cultivated potato (S. tuberosum L.) to obtain improved potato cultivars, the new cultivars must be evaluated for their beneficial and undesirable traits. Glycoalkaloids present in Solanum species are known for their toxic as well as for beneficial effects on mammals. On the other hand, glycoalkaloids in potato leaves provide natural protection against pests. Due to breeding, glycoalkaloid profile of the plant is affected. In addition, the starch properties in potato tubers can be affected as a result of breeding, because the crystalline properties are determined by the botanical source of the starch. Starch content and composition affect the texture of cooked and processed potatoes. In order to determine glycoalkaloid contents in Solanum species, simultaneous separation of glycoalkaloids and aglycones using reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was developed. Clean-up of foliage samples was improved using a silica-based strong cation exchanger instead of octadecyl phases in solid-phase extraction. Glycoalkaloids alpha-solanine and alpha-chaconine were detected in potato tubers of cvs. Satu and Sini. The total glycoalkaloid concentration of non-peeled and immature tubers was at an acceptable level (under 20 mg/100 g of FW) in the cv. Satu, whereas concentration in cv. Sini was 23 mg/100 g FW. Solanum species (S. tuberosum, S. brevidens, S. acaule, and S. commersonii) and interspecific somatic hybrids (brd + tbr, acl + tbr, cmm + tbr) were analyzed for their glycoalkaloid contents using liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS). The concentrations in the tubers of the brd + tbr and acl + tbr hybrids remained under 20 mg/100 g FW. Glycoalkaloid concentration in the foliage of the Solanum species was between 110 mg and 890 mg/100 g FW. However, the concentration in the foliage of S. acaule was as low as 26 mg/100 g FW. The total concentrations of brd + tbr, acl + tbr, and cmm + tbr hybrid foliages were 88 mg, 180 mg, and 685 mg/100 g FW, respectively. Glycoalkaloids of both parental plants as well as new combinations of aglycones and saccharides were detected in somatic hybrids. The hybrids contained mainly spirosolanes, and glycoalkaloid structures having no 5,6-double bond in the aglycone. Based on these results, the glycoalkaloid profiles of the hybrids may represent a safer and more beneficial spectrum of glycoalkaloids than that found in currently cultivated varieties. Starch nanostructure of three different cultivars (Satu, Saturna, and Lady Rosetta), a wild species S. acaule, and interspecific somatic hybrids were examined by wide-angle and small-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS, SAXS). For the first time, the measurements were conducted on fresh potato tuber samples. Crystallinity of starch, average crystallite size, and lamellar distance were determined from the X-ray patterns. No differences in the starch nanostructure between the three different cultivars were detected. However, tuber immaturity was detected by X-ray scattering methods when large numbers of immature and mature samples were measured and the results were compared. The present study shows that no significant changes occurred in the nanostructures of starches resulting from hybridizations of potato cultivars.

Sianlihan tuotantoon vaikuttavat tekijät vuosina 1995-2006

Ennen Suomen EU-jäsenyyttä kansallisen maatalouspolitiikan yksi päätavoitteista oli elintarvikeomavaraisuus. Tavoitteen saavuttamiseksi Suomessa oli maatalouspolitiikan osalta käytössä hintatukijärjestelmä, jossa yksi pääasiallisista tuotannon ohjauskeinoista oli tavoitehinnat, joilla valtiovalta pyrki vaikuttamaan tuottajahintoihin. Tavoitehintojen avulla tuottajat pystyivät ennakoimaan tulevan hintatason ja näin siirtämään tuotantoaan taloudellisesti kannattavimpaan suuntaan. Tästä oli kuitenkin seurauksena kotimaisen elintarvikeomavaraisuuden ylittyminen varsinkin eläinkunnan tuotteiden osalta. Vuonna 1994 lihatuotteiden yhteenlaskettu omavaisuus oli 110 prosenttia. Sianlihan osalta omavaisuus oli hieman tätä suurempi, 114 prosenttia. Suomen liityttyä EU:n jäsenmaaksi vuonna 1995 tavoitehinnoista luovuttiin ja samalla tuottajahinnat putosivat. Korvaukseksi tuottajahintojen pudotuksesta tuottajille alettiin maksaa suoria tulotukia. Tutkimuksen tarkoituksena oli selvittää mitkä tekijät vaikuttivat sianlihan tuotantopäätöksiin maatalouden muuttuneessa toimintaympäristössä ja miten yhteisen maatalouspolitiikan uudistukset vaikuttivat sianlihan tarjontaan. Tutkimuksen tarkasteluaikavälinä olivat vuodet 1995 2006. Tutkimuksen tavoitteena oli myös tuotantoon vaikuttavien tekijöiden pohjalta ennustaa sianlihan tuotantoa vuoteen 2013. Tuotantopäätöksiin vaikuttavia tekijöitä tarkasteltiin regressio-analyysin avulla, jotta saataisiin selville sianlihan tuotantoa parhaiten selittävät tekijät. Tutkimuksen aikasarja-aineisto poimittiin maa- ja metsätalousministeriön tietopalvelukeskuksen (Tike:n) ja tilastokeskuksen julkaisemista ja ylläpitämistä tilastoista. Sianlihan tuotantoon vaikuttavien tekijöiden ennusteisiin tutkimuksessa käytettiin sekä kansainvälisten että kotimaisten taloustutkimuslaitosten ja organisaatioiden ennusteita. Tutkimuksen teoreettinen viitekehys muodostui yrityksen teoriasta, tarjontateoriasta ja aikavälin merkityksestä tarjontaan. Tuotantomallin estimoinnin tuloksena sianlihan tuotantoon vaikuttivat vuosien 1996 2006 aikana sianlihan tuotannon tuottavuuden kasvua kuvaava teknologiamuuttuja, neljällä neljänneksellä viivästetty sianlihan tuottajahinta ja tuotantotuet yhteenlaskettuna, kolmella neljänneksellä viivästetty vehnän tuottajahinta, kahdeksalla neljänneksellä viivästetty sianlihan tuotanto, kahdella neljänneksellä viivästetty porsaan välityshinta ja kuudella neljänneksellä viivästetty investointituet. Sianlihan tuotantomallin selitysasteeksi saatiin 0,91. Estimoidulla tuotantomallilla ennustettiin sianlihan tuotannon kehitystä vuosina 2007 2013. Perusskenaariossa tuotannon ennustettiin muuttuvan vuodesta 2007 eteenpäin samalla tavalla kuin vuosina 1995 2006 keskimäärin. Perusskenaarion lisäksi tuotantomallilla simuloitiin tuotantotukien ja investointitukien dekoplauksen vaikutusta sianlihan tuotantoon. Tuotantotukien dekoplauksen myötä sianlihan tuotanto laskisi 177 milj. kiloon vuonna 2009, mutta nousisi 193 milj. kiloon vuonna 2013. Investointitukien dekoplauksen myötä tuotanto laskisi 176 milj. kiloon vuonna 2009 ja nousisi vuoteen 2013 mennessä 191 milj. kiloon. Suurimman pudotuksen aiheutti kuitenkin vehnän tuottajahinnan nousu vuosien 2006 ja 2007 aikana, jonka seurauksena sianlihan tuotanto laskisi jo vuonna 2008 180 milj. kiloon.

Studies of new inorganic species using relativistic quantum chemistry

In the present work the methods of relativistic quantum chemistry have been applied to a number of small systems containing heavy elements, for which relativistic effects are important. First, a thorough introduction of the methods used is presented. This includes some of the general methods of computational chemistry and a special section dealing with how to include the effects of relativity in quantum chemical calculations. Second, after this introduction the results obtained are presented. Investigations on high-valent mercury compounds are presented and new ways to synthesise such compounds are proposed. The methods described were applied to certain systems containing short Pt-Tl contacts. It was possible to explain the interesting bonding situation in these compounds. One of the most common actinide compounds, uranium hexafluoride was investigated and a new picture of the bonding was presented. Furthermore the rareness of uranium-cyanide compounds was discussed. In a foray into the chemistry of gold, well known for its strong relativistic effects, investigations on different gold systems were performed. Analogies between Au$^+$ and platinum on one hand and oxygen on the other were found. New systems with multiple bonds to gold were proposed to experimentalists. One of the proposed systems was spectroscopically observed shortly afterwards. A very interesting molecule, which was theoretically predicted a few years ago is WAu$_{12}$. Some of its properties were calculated and the bonding situation was discussed. In a further study on gold compounds it was possible to explain the substitution pattern in bis[phosphane-gold(I)] thiocyanate complexes. This is of some help to experimentalists as the systems could not be crystallised and the structure was therefore unknown. Finally, computations on one of the heaviest elements in the periodic table were performed. Calculation on compounds containing element 110, darmstadtium, showed that it behaves similarly as its lighter homologue platinum. The extreme importance of relativistic effects for these systems was also shown.

Responses of Scots pine to nickel and copper exposure and herbivory

The goal of this thesis was to examine the ecophysiological responses of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), with an emphasis on the oxidative enzyme peroxidase and plant phenolics to environmental stresses like elevated levels of nickel (Ni) and copper (Cu), and herbivory. The effects of Ni and Cu were studied in a gradient survey at a sulphur dioxide contaminated site in the Kola Peninsula, and with experiments in which seedlings were exposed to Ni mist or to Ni and Cu amended into the soil. In addition, experimental Ni exposure was combined with disturbance of the natural lichen cover of the forest ground layer. Pine sawfly attack was simulated in the early season defoliation experiment, in which mature Scots pine were defoliated (100 %) during two successive years in a dry, nutrient-poor Scots pine stand. In addition, the effect of previous defoliation on the growth of sawfly (Diprion pini L.) larvae was studied. Apoplastic peroxidase activity was elevated in the needles of pine in a Ni- , Cu- and SO2- polluted environment, which indicated an increased oxidative stress. Increased foliar peroxidase activity due to Ni contamination was shown in the experiment, in which Ni was added as mist. No such response was found in peroxidase acitivity of the roots exposed to elevated Ni and/or Cu in the soil. Elevated Ni in the soil increased the concentration of foliar condensed tannins, which are able to bind heavy metals in the cells. Addition of low levels of Ni in the soil appeared to benefit pine seedlings, which was seen as promoted shoot growth and better condition of the roots. Wet Ni deposition of 2000 mg m-2 reduced growth and survival of pine seedlings, whereas deposition levels 200 mg m-2 or 20 mg m-2 caused no effects in a 2-y lasting experiment. The lichen mat on the forest floor did not act as an effective buffer against the adverse impacts of heavy metals on pine seedlings. However, some evidence was found indicating that soil microbes profited from the lichen mat. Artificial defoliation increased peroxidase activity in the Scots pine needles. In addition, defoliation decreased nitrogen, diamine putrescine and glucose concentrations in the needles and increased the concentrations of several phenolic compounds, starch and sucrose. Previous artificial defoliation led to poor growth of sawfly larvae reared on the pines, suggesting delayed induced resistance in Scots pine. However, there was no consistent relationship between inducibility (proportional increase in a compound following defoliation) and adverse effects on the growth of pine sawfly larvae. The observed inducible responses in needle phenolics due to previous defoliation thus appear to represent non-specific responses against sawflies.

Microbe-induced activation of inflammatory cytokine response in human cells

Human body is in continuous contact with microbes. Although many microbes are harmless or beneficial for humans, pathogenic microbes possess a threat to wellbeing. Antimicrobial protection is provided by the immune system, which can be functionally divided into two parts, namely innate and adaptive immunity. The key players of the innate immunity are phagocytic white blood cells such as neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs), which constantly monitor the blood and peripheral tissues. These cells are armed for rapid activation upon microbial contact since they express a variety of microbe-recognizing receptors. Macrophages and DCs also act as antigen presenting cells (APCs) and play an important role in the development of adaptive immunity. The development of adaptive immunity requires intimate cooperation between APCs and T lymphocytes and results in microbe-specific immune responses. Moreover, adaptive immunity generates immunological memory, which rapidly and efficiently protects the host from reinfection. Properly functioning immune system requires efficient communication between cells. Cytokines are proteins, which mediate intercellular communication together with direct cell-cell contacts. Immune cells produce inflammatory cytokines rapidly following microbial contact. Inflammatory cytokines modulate the development of local immune response by binding to cell surface receptors, which results in the activation of intracellular signalling and modulates target cell gene expression. One class of inflammatory cytokines chemokines has a major role in regulating cellular traffic. Locally produced inflammatory chemokines guide the recruitment of effector cells to the site of inflammation during microbial infection. In this study two key questions were addressed. First, the ability of pathogenic and non-pathogenic Gram-positive bacteria to activate inflammatory cytokine and chemokine production in different human APCs was compared. In these studies macrophages and DCs were stimulated with pathogenic Steptococcus pyogenes or non-pathogenic Lactobacillus rhamnosus. The second aim of this thesis work was to analyze the role of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the regulation of microbe-induced chemokine production. In these studies bacteria-stimulated macrophages and influenza A virus-infected lung epithelial cells were used as model systems. The results of this study show that although macrophages and DCs share several common antimicrobial functions, these cells have significantly distinct responses against pathogenic and non-pathogenic Gram-positive bacteria. Macrophages were activated in a nearly similar fashion by pathogenic S. pyogenes and non-pathogenic L. rhamnosus. Both bacteria induced the production of similar core set of inflammatory chemokines consisting of several CC-class chemokines and CXCL8. These chemokines attract monocytes, neutrophils, dendritic cells and T cells. Thus, the results suggest that bacteria-activated macrophages efficiently recruit other effector cells to the site of inflammation. Moreover, macrophages seem to be activated by all bacteria irrespective of their pathogenicity. DCs, in contrast, were efficiently activated only by pathogenic S. pyogenes, which induced DC maturation and production of several inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. In contrast, L. rhamnosus-stimulated DCs matured only partially and, most importantly, these cells did not produce inflammatory cytokines or chemokines. L. rhamnosus-stimulated DCs had a phenotype of "semi-mature" DCs and this type of DCs have been suggested to enhance tolerogenic adaptive immune responses. Since DCs have an essential role in the development of adaptive immune response the results suggest that, in contrast to macrophages, DCs may be able to discriminate between pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria and thus mount appropriate inflammatory or tolerogenic adaptive immune response depending on the microbe in question. The results of this study also show that pro-inflammatory cytokines can contribute to microbe-induced chemokine production at multiple levels. S. pyogenes-induced type I interferon (IFN) was found to enhance the production of certain inflammatory chemokines in macrophages during bacterial stimulation. Thus, bacteria-induced chemokine production is regulated by direct (microbe-induced) and indirect (pro-inflammatory cytokine-induced) mechanisms during inflammation. In epithelial cells IFN- and tumor necrosis factor- (TNF-) were found to enhance the expression of PRRs and components of cellular signal transduction machinery. Pre-treatment of epithelial cells with these cytokines prior to virus infection resulted in markedly enhanced chemokine response compared to untreated cells. In conclusion, the results obtained from this study show that pro-inflammatory cytokines can enhance microbe-induced chemokine production during microbial infection by providing a positive feedback loop. In addition, pro-inflammatory cytokines can render normally low-responding cells to high chemokine producers via enhancement of microbial detection and signal transduction.