Lärarens direktiv i svenskundervisningen i grundskolan

Tarkastelen pro gradu -tutkielmassani opettajan direktiivejä eli ohjailevia lausumia peruskoulun ruotsinopetuksessa. Aineistoni koostuu kuudennella ja kahdeksannella luokalla nauhoitetuista ruotsintunneista, ja sitä on yhteensä 3 tuntia 15 minuuttia. Analysoin sitä, miten opettaja muotoilee direktiivinsä, annetaanko direktiivit suomeksi vai ruotsiksi ja miten opettajan ohjaileva puhe vaikuttaa oppilaiden käytökseen. Direktiivien tehtävänä on saada oppilaat toimimaan opettajan toivomalla tavalla. Direktiivit ovat yleensä vierusparin etujäseniä, jolloin oppilaiden kielellinen tai ei-kielellinen reaktio muodostaa jälkijäsenen. Opettajan direktiivi voi olla myös jälkijäsen, jolloin se on reaktio siihen, mitä oppilaat ovat tehneet. On preferoitua, että oppilaat noudattavat opettajan ohjeita. Opettaja voi käyttää direktiivinä imperatiivia, kysymys- ja väitelausetta sekä nominaalilauseketta. Imperatiivi on tunnusmerkitön tapa ilmaista ohjailua, ja opettaja käyttää sitä rutiininomaisissa kehotuksissa. Kysymyslauseen muotoisia direktiivejä opettaja käyttää varmistaakseen, että opetus voi jatkua, ja säilyttääkseen työrauhan. Väitelauseilla opettaja puolestaan antaa erilaisia ohjeita ja säätelee työrauhaa. Nominaalilauseketta opettaja voi käyttää direktiivinä antaessaan oppilaalle vastausvuoron tai kieltäessään oppilasta häiritsemästä työrauhaa. Suomea käytetään direktiiveissä, jotka liittyvät kieliopin opettamiseen, kun taas ruotsiksi ilmaistaan usein toistuvat direktiivit. Usein opettaja käyttää ensin ruotsia ja toistaa sitten direktiivin suomeksi. Opettajan institutionaaliseen rooliin kuuluu se, että hänellä on auktoriteetti luokkahuoneessa. Siksi oppilaiden on noudatettava opettajan ohjeita, ja tavallisesti he tekevätkin niin, mutta siihen kuluu joskus paljon aikaa.

Teori, praktik och yrkesval : En etnografisk analys av yrkeslivsrelevansen på Nordicas översättarlinje

Pro gradu -tutkielma “Teori, praktik och yrkesval: En etnografisk analys av yrkeslivsrelevansen på Nordicas översättarlinje” käsittelee pohjoismaisten kielten ja pohjoismaisen kirjallisuuden laitoksen (Nordican) kääntäjälinjan koulutusta. Tutkielman tavoite on tuottaa käytännöllistä tietoa kääntäjäkoulutuksen opinnoista ja opiskelijoista. Tietoa voidaan käyttää suunnitteluapuna Helsingin yliopiston kääntäjäkoulutuksen uudelleenorganisoinnissa, joka tapahtuu vuonna 2009. Tutkimuskysymyksissä keskitytään erityisesti Nordican kääntäjäkoulutuksen työelämäorientaatioon liittyviin opintoihin. Työelämäorientaation osuutta opinnoissa ja kääntäjälinjan opiskelijoiden opintosuunnittelua tutkitaan kyselytutkimuksen ja haastattelujen avulla. Kyselytutkimukseen on vastannut 19 nykyistä ja valmistunutta opiskelijaa kääntäjälinjalta (vastausprosentti on n. 36). Haastatteluihin on osallistunut viisi henkilöä – kolme opiskelijaa ja kaksi valmistunutta. Materiaalin suurin ongelma on aineiston vähyys ja se, että haastateltavista suurin osa opiskelee tai on opiskellut toisen kotimaisen kielen linjalla. Tutkimuksessa ei siis saada riittävästi tietoa äidinkielen linjan opiskelijoiden tilanteesta. Tutkimusmetodi on kvalitatiivinen osaksi aineiston pienuuden takia, mutta kyselytutkimuksen tuloksia analysoidaan myös kvantitatiivisesti. Kyselyn ja haastattelujen avoimet vastaukset analysoidaan etnografisen metodin avulla, joka soveltuu hyvin pienen aineiston analysointiin. Metodissa korostuvat tutkimuksen prosessiluonteisuus ja esimerkiksi tutkimuskysymysten muotoiluun ja materiaalin keräämiseen liittyvä joustavuus. Tutkimusmateriaalin analyysissa korostuu tutkimuskohteen kuvailun sijaan tulkinta. Tutkielman teoriaosuus käsittelee sekä kääntäjäkoulutuksen historiaa että nykyistä yliopistopedagogiikkaa. Johdannossa käsitellään myös Helsingin yliopiston työllistymiskartoituksia ja aikaisempia tutkimuksia Nordican ja käännöstieteen laitoksen opiskelijoiden sijoittumisesta työmarkkinoille. Teoreettisen viitekehyksen keskeisimmät aiheet ovat funktionaalinen kääntäjäkoulutus, kääntäjän kompetenssit, asiantuntijuus ja ammattimaisuus sekä teorian ja käytännön osuus opinnoissa. Teoriaosuus pohjustaa analyysin keskeisiä teemoja. Tutkimustulosten perusteella voi kumota osan tutkielman alussa esitetyistä hypoteeseista. Esimerkiksi kääntäjälinjan opiskelijoiden opintosuunnittelu ja halu suorittaa opintonsa yksinomaan kääntäjälinjalla ovat osoittautuneet oletettua johdonmukaisemmiksi. Opiskelijat ovat motivoituneita ja sitoutuvat kääntäjälinjan opintoihin muun muassa valitsemalla sivuaineita, jotka tukevat pääaineopintoja. Työelämäorientaation osalta tämänhetkiset opiskelijat vaikuttavat tyytyväisemmiltä opintoihinsa kuin jo valmistuneet kääntäjälinjalaiset. Haastateltavien yleinen käsitys on, että työelämäorientaatiota, ja erityisesti kääntäjän ammattiin liittyviä käytännön kysymyksiä, käsitellään opinnoissa liian vähän. Tutkielman tarkoitus on kartoittaa kääntäjälinjan opiskelijoiden ja valmistuneiden kääntäjälinjalaisten käsityksiä opintojen yhteydestä työelämään. Tutkimustulosten perusteella voidaan todeta, että akateemisiin opintoihin pitäisi sisältyä enemmän työelämäkontakteja. Työharjoittelu on ollut monelle tutkimuksen haastateltavalle hyvä kokemus, joka on johtanut harjoittelujakson jälkeiseen työsuhteeseen. Nordican uutta kääntäjäkoulutusta suunniteltaessa tulisikin ottaa huomioon työharjoittelun tärkeys. Monet haastateltujen mainitsemista koulutuksen kehittämiskohteista liittyvät resurssikysymyksiin. Kääntäjäkoulutuksen uudistuksen myötä voidaan toivottavasti vaikuttaa esimerkiksi erityisalojen kurssitarjontaan.

Molecular genetics and evolution of Puumala hantavirus

Puumala virus (PUUV) is the causative agent of nephropathia epidemica (NE), a mild form of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome. Finland has the highest documented incidence of NE with around 1000 cases diagnosed annually. PUUV is also found in other Scandinavian countries, Central Europe and the European part of Russia. PUUV belongs to the genus Hantavirus in the family Bunyaviridae. Hantaviruses are rodent-borne viruses each carried by a specific host that is persistently and asymptomatically infected by the virus. PUUV is carried by the bank voles (Myodes glareolus, previously known as Clethrionomys glareolus). Hantaviruses have co-evolved with their carrier rodents for millions of years and these host animals are the evolutionary scene of hantaviruses. In this study, PUUV sequences were recovered from bank voles captured in Denmark and Russian Karelia to study the evolution of PUUV in Scandinavia. Phylogenetic analysis of these strains showed a geographical clustering of genetic variants following the presumable migration pattern of bank voles during the recolonization of Scandinavia after the last ice age approximately 10 000 years ago. The currently known PUUV genome sequences were subjected to in-depth phylogenetic analyses and the results showed that genetic drift seems to be the major mechanism of PUUV evolution. In general, PUUV seems to evolve quite slowly following a molecular clock. We also found evidence for recombination in the evolution of some genetic lineages of PUUV. Viral microevolution was studied in controlled virus transmission in colonized bank voles and changes in quasispecies dynamics were recorded as the virus was transmitted from one animal to another. We witnessed PUUV evolution in vivo, as one synonymous mutation became repeatedly fixed in the viral genome during the experiment. The detailed knowledge on the PUUV diversity was used to establish new sensitive and specific detection methods for this virus. Direct viral invasion of the hypophysis was demonstrated for the first time in a lethal case of NE. PUUV detection was done by immunohistochemistry, in situ hybridization and RT-nested-PCR of the autopsy tissue samples.

Ystävä sä lapsien : Lasten virret ja hengelliset laulut suomenkielisissä kokoelmissa 1824-1938 ja niiden vaikutus vuoden 1938 virsikirjaan

Ystävä sä lapsien. Collections of Finnish language children s hymns and spiritual songs from 1824─1938 and their influence on the Hymnal 1938. The Hymnal has been the common song book of Lutheran parishes since the 1500s. In the beginning, the congregations sang the hymns from memory led by the choir or the church musician. The fundamentals of Christian faith are taught through the hymns, both in church and in family devotions. The Hymnal was the only song book of the church in Finland until the end of the 1800s. This study attempts to clarify when and by who were spiritual songs and hymns for children written in Finland. Research materials used were all the books I could find (approximately 200), whose headings were for pupils and young children in the home and school circles. The method of study is historical and analytical. In the first chapter, it is explained that children s literature in Finland differentiated from other literature at the end of the 1700s. Eric Juvelius published a small prayer book in 1781 with the prayer Gud, som hafver barnen kär / Jumala joka Lapsia rakasta. From that, after many Finnish translations, the first verse of the hymn Ystävä sä lapsien took shape. The second chapter considers singing instruction in the folk school from the beginning of the 1860s. Textbooks, including songbooks, were produced for the pupils. Some of the first pioneers in producing these materials were the teachers P.J. Hannikainen, Sofie Lithenius, Mikael Nyberg, Anton Rikström and Aksel Törnudd, as well as Hilja Haahti, Immi Hellén and Alli Nissinen, who were all teachers gifted in writing poetry. Several new spiritual songs appeared in the folk school songbooks. Hymns were sung often, especially in connection with church year celebrations. Children s songs in Christian education are discussed in the third chapter. The Lutheran Evangelical Association of Finland recognized children already in its early song collections. The illustrative teaching methods in the folk school influenced the Sunday school activities and especially the Sunday school hymns. Hymns introduced as exclusively for children and pupils which appear in the Hymnal from 1886 and the supplement to the 1923 Hymnal are explored in the fourth and fifth chapters. The study shows that the renewal of church life at the beginning of the 1900s also resulted in an increase of the number of spiritual songs for children. This is also seen in the diverse choice of songs in the supplementary materials from 1923. The final chapter deals with the School and Childhood section of the 1938 Hymnal. The Hymnal committee did not think that the already well known folk school and Sunday school songs received enough attention in the Hymnal. Those songs were, among others, Kautta tyynen, vienon yön, Oi, katsopa lintua oksalla puun, Olen Luojani pikku varpunen, Rakas Isä taivahan ja Tuolla keinuu pieni pursi. Heikki Klemetti, Ilmari Krohn, Armas Maasalo and Aarni Voipio influenced the opinion that the spiritual songs still were not suitable to be sung in church. Hymns for children and pupils were brought into the same line as the entire Hymnal. The same hymn tunes, which were mainly old ones, were used as common settings for numerous hymn texts. No special type of melody emerged for the children s hymns. It was still notable that hymns for children and pupils were collected at all. In addition, the Hymnal committee marked those verses suggested for singing in both the folk school and Sunday school with an asterisk (*) throughout the entire Hymnal.

The Soviet Union, Finland and the Cold War : The Finnish Card in Soviet Foreign Policy, 1956-1959

From the Soviet point of view the actual substance of Soviet-Finnish relations in the second half of 1950s clearly differed from the contemporary and later public image, based on friendship and confidence rhetoric. As the polarization between the right and the left became more underlined in Finland in the latter half of the 1950s, the criticism towards the Soviet Union became stronger, and the USSR feared that this development would have influence on Finnish foreign policy. From the Soviet point of view, the security commitments of FCMA-treaty needed additional guarantees through control of Finnish domestic politics and economic relations, especially during international crises. In relation to Scandinavia, Finland was, from the Soviet point of view, the model country of friendship or neutrality policy. The influence of the Second Berlin Crisis or the Soviet-Finnish Night Frost Crisis in 1958-1959 to Soviet policy towards Scandinavia needs to be observed from this point of view. The Soviet Union used Finland as a tool, in agreement with Finnish highest political leadership, for weakening of the NATO membership of Norway and Denmark, and for maintaining Swedish non-alliance. The Finnish interest to EFTA membership in the summer of 1959, at the same time with the Scandinavian countries, seems to have caused a panic reaction in the USSR, as the Soviets feared that these economic arrangements would reverse the political advantages the country had received in Finland after the Night Frost Crisis. Together with history of events, this study observes the interaction of practical interests and ideologies, both in individuals and in decision-making organizations. The necessary social and ideological reforms in the Soviet Union after 1956 had influence both on the legitimacy of the regime, and led to contradictions in the argumentation of Soviet foreign policy. This was observed both in the own camp as well as in the West. Also, in Finland a breakthrough took place in the late 1950's: as the so-called counter reaction lost to the K-line, "a special relationship" developed with the Soviet Union. As a consequence of the Night Frost Crisis the Soviet relationship became a factor decisively defining the limits of domestic politics in Finland, a part of Finnish domestic political argumentation. Understood from this basis, finlandization is not, even from the viewpoint of international relations, a special case, but a domestic political culture formed by the relationship between a dominant state, a superpower, and a subordinate state, Finland.

The Emerging Phenotype: Ecological Genetics of Color, Form and Sex in the Common Frog

One of the main aims of evolutionary biology is to explain why organisms vary phenotypically as they do. Proximately, this variation arises from genetic differences and from environmental influences, the latter of which is referred to as phenotypic plasticity. Phenotypic plasticity is thus a central concept in evolutionary biology, and understanding its relative importance in causing the phenotypic variation and differentiation is important, for instance in anticipating the consequences of human induced environmental changes. The aim of this thesis was to study geographic variation and local adaptation, as well as sex ratios and environmental sex reversal, in the common frog (Rana temporaria). These themes cover three different aspects of phenotypic plasticity, which emerges as the central concept for the thesis. The first two chapters address geographic variation and local adaptation in two potentially thermally adaptive traits, namely the degree of melanism and the relative leg length. The results show that although there is an increasing latitudinal trend in the degree of melanism in wild populations across Scandinavian Peninsula, this cline has no direct genetic basis and is thus environmentally induced. The second chapter demonstrates that although there is no linear, latitudinally ordered phenotypic trend in relative leg length that would be expected under Allen s rule an ecogeographical rule linking extremity length to climatic conditions there seems to be such a trend at the genetic level, hidden under environmental effects. The first two chapters thus view phenotypic plasticity through its ecological role and evolution, and demonstrate that it can both give rise to phenotypic variation and hide evolutionary patterns in studies that focus solely on phenotypes. The last three chapters relate to phenotypic plasticity through its ecological and evolutionary role in sex determination, and consequent effects on population sex ratio, genetic recombination and the evolution of sex chromosomes. The results show that while sex ratios are strongly female biased and there is evidence of environmental sex reversals, these reversals are unlikely to have caused the sex ratio skew, at least directly. The results demonstrate that environmental sex reversal can have an effect on the evolution of sex chromosomes, as the recombination patterns between them seem to be controlled by phenotypic, rather than genetic, sex. This potentially allows Y chromosomes to recombine, lending support for the recent hypothesis suggesting that sex-reversal may play an important role on the rejuvenation of Y chromosomes.

Human Rights in Action

In the post-World War II era human rights have emerged as an enormous global phenomenon. In Finland human rights have particularly in the 1990s moved from the periphery to the center of public policy making and political rhetoric. Human rights education is commonly viewed as the decisive vehicle for emancipating individuals of oppressive societal structures and rendering them conscious of the equal value of others; both core ideals of the abstract discourse. Yet little empirical research has been conducted on how these goals are realized in practice. These factors provide the background for the present study which, by combining anthropological insights with critical legal theory, has analyzed the educational activities of a Scandinavian and Nordic network of human rights experts and PhD students in 2002-2005. This material has been complemented by data from the proceedings of UN human rights treaty bodies, hearings organized by the Finnish Foreign Ministry, the analysis of different human rights documents as well as the manner human rights are talked of in the Finnish media. As the human rights phenomenon has expanded, human rights experts have acquired widespread societal influence. The content of human rights remains, nevertheless, ambiguous: on the one hand they are law, on the other, part of a moral discourse. By educating laymen on what human rights are, experts act both as intermediaries and activists who expand the scope of rights and simultaneously exert increasing political influence. In the educational activities of the analyzed network these roles were visible in the rhetorics of legality and legitimacy . Among experts both of these rhetorics are subject to ongoing professional controversy, yet in the network they are presented as undisputable facts. This contributes to the impression that human rights knowledge is uncontested. This study demonstrates how the network s activities embody and strengthen a conception of expertise as located in specific, structurally determined individuals. Simultaneously its conception of learning emphasizes the adoption of knowledge by students, emphasizing the power of experts over them. The majority of the network s experts are Nordic males, whereas its students are predominantly Nordic females and males from East-European and developing countries. Contrary to the ideals of the discourse the network s activities do not create dialogue, but instead repeat power structures which are themselves problematic.

Hard Custom, Hard Dance : Social Organisation, (Un)Differentiation and Notions of Power in a Tabiteuean Community, Southern Kiribati

Hard Custom, Hard Dance: Social Organisation, (Un)Differentiation and Notions of Power in a Tabiteuean Community, Southern Kiribati is an ethnographic study of a village community. This work analyses social organisation on the island of Tabiteuea in the Micronesian state of Kiribati, examining the intertwining of hierarchical and egalitarian traits, meanwhile bringing a new perspective to scholarly discussions of social differentiation by introducing the concept of undifferentiation to describe non-hierarchical social forms and practices. Particular attention is paid to local ideas concerning symbolic power, abstractly understood as the potency for social reproduction, but also examined in one of its forms; authority understood as the right to speak. The workings of social differentiation and undifferentiation in the village are specifically studied in two contexts connected by local notions of power: the meetinghouse institution (te maneaba) and traditional dancing (te mwaie). This dissertation is based on 11 months of anthropological fieldwork in 1999‒2000 in Kiribati and Fiji, with an emphasis on participant observation and the collection of oral tradition (narratives and songs). The questions are approached through three distinct but interrelated topics: (i) A key narrative of the community ‒ the story of an ancestor without descendants ‒ is presented and discussed, along with other narratives. (ii) The Kiribati meetinghouse institution, te maneaba, is considered in terms of oral tradition as well as present-day practices and customs. (iii) Kiribati dancing (te mwaie) is examined through a discussion of competing dance groups, followed by an extended case study of four dance events. In the course of this work the community of close to four hundred inhabitants is depicted as constructed primarily of clans and households, but also of churches, work co-operatives and dance groups, but also as a significant and valued social unit in itself, and a part of the wider island district. In these partly cross-cutting and overlapping social matrices, people are alternatingly organised by the distinct values and logic of differentiation and undifferentiation. At different levels of social integration and in different modes of social and discursive practice, there are heightened moments of differentiation, followed by active undifferentiation. The central notions concerning power and authority to emerge are, firstly, that in order to be valued and utilised, power needs to be controlled. Secondly, power is not allowed to centralize in the hands of one person or group for any long period of time. Thirdly, out of the permanent reach of people, power/authority is always, on the one hand, left outside the factual community and, on the other, vested in community, the social whole. Several forms of differentiation and undifferentiation emerge, but these appear to be systematically related. Social differentiation building on typically Austronesian complementary differences (such as male:female, elder:younger, autochtonous:allotochtonous) is valued, even if eventually restricted, whereas differentiation based on non-complementary differences (such as monetary wealth or level of education) is generally resisted, and/or is subsumed by the complementary distinctions. The concomitant forms of undifferentiation are likewise hierarchically organised. On the level of the society as a whole, undifferentiation means circumscribing and ultimately withholding social hierarchy. Potential hierarchy is both based on a combination of valued complementary differences between social groups and individuals, but also limited by virtue of the undoing of these differences; for example, in the dissolution of seniority (elder-younger) and gender (male-female) into sameness. Like the suspension of hierarchy, undifferentiation as transformation requires the recognition of pre-existing difference and does not mean devaluing the difference. This form of undifferentiation is ultimately encompassed by the first one, as the processes of the differentiation, whether transformed or not, are always halted. Finally, undifferentiation can mean the prevention of non-complementary differences between social groups or individuals. This form of undifferentiation, like the differentiation it works on, takes place on a lower level of societal ideology, as both the differences and their prevention are always encompassed by the complementary differences and their undoing. It is concluded that Southern Kiribati society be seen as a combination of a severely limited and decentralised hierarchy (differentiation) and of a tightly conditional and contextual (intra-category) equality (undifferentiation), and that it is distinctly characterised by an enduring tension between these contradicting social forms and cultural notions. With reference to the local notion of hardness used to characterise custom on this particular island as well as dance in general, it is argued in this work that in this Tabiteuean community some forms of differentiation are valued though strictly delimited or even undone, whereas other forms of differentiation are a perceived as a threat to community, necessitating pre-emptive imposition of undifferentiation. Power, though sought after and displayed - particularly in dancing - must always remain controlled.

Siperiaa sanoiksi - uralilaisuutta teoiksi : Kai Donner poliittisena organisaattorina sekä tiedemiehenä antropologian näkökulmasta

The doctoral dissertation, entitled Siperiaa sanoiksi - uralilaisuutta teoiksi. Kai Donner poliittisena organisaattorina sekä tiedemiehenä antropologian näkökulmasta clarifies the early history of anthropological fieldwork and research in Siberia. The object of research is Kai Donner (1888-1935), fieldworker, explorer and researcher of Finno-Ugric languages, who made two expeditions to Siberia during 1911-1913 and 1914. Donner studied in Cambridge in 1909 under the guidance of James Frazer, A. C. Haddon and W. H. R. Rivers - and with Bronislaw Malinowski. After finishing his expeditions, Donner organized the enlistment of Finnish university students to receive military training in Germany. He was exiled and participated in the struggle for Finnish independence. After that, he organized military offensives in Russia and participated in domestic politics and policy in cooperation with C. G. E. Mannerheim. He also wrote four ethnographic descriptions on Siberia and worked with the Scandinavian Arctic areas researchers and Polar explorers. The results of this analysis can be sum up as follows: In the history of ethnographic research in Finland, it is possible to find two types of fieldwork tradition. The first tradition started from M. A. Castrén's explorations and research and the second one from August Ahlqvist's. Donner can be included in the first group with Castrén and Sakari Pälsi, unlike other contemporary philologists, or cultural researcher colleagues, which used the method of August Ahlqvist. Donner's holistic, lively and participant-observation based way of work is articulated in his writings two years before Malinowski published his thesis about modern fieldwork. Unfortunately, Donner didn't get the change to continue his researche because of the civil war in Finland, and due to the dogmatic position of E. N. Setälä. Donner's main work - the ethnohistorical Siberia - encloses his political and anthropological visions about a common and threatened Uralic nation under the pressure of Russian. The important items of his expeditions can be found in the area of cultural ecology, nutritional anthropology and fieldwork methods. It is also possible to prove that in his short stories from Siberia, there can be found some psychological factors that correlate his early life history.

Eläinlääkärin pehmeät direktiivit

Tutkielmassa selvitetään, millaisia direktiivejä eli ohjailevia lausumia eläinlääkäri käyttää potilasvastaanottonsa aikana vaikuttaakseen eläimen tai sen omistajan toimintaan. Lähtökohtana on huomio siitä, että eläinlääkäri pehmentää etenkin eläimenomistajalle suunnattuja ohjeita, neuvoja ja pyyntöjä erilaisin kielellisin keinoin. Kaiken kaikkiaan eläinlääkärin direktiivit vaikuttavat kontekstissaan toimivilta, tilanteeseen sopivilta ja riittävän kohteliailta. Tutkielmassa pohditaan, miksi tiettyjä direktiivejä on tarpeen pehmentää enemmän kuin toisia, ja millaisin keinoin tätä pehmeää, kohteliasta puhetta luodaan. Tutkimusmenetelmänä on keskustelunanalyysi. Aineistona on yhdeksän vuonna 2009 videokuvattua potilaskäyntiä eteläsuomalaiselta eläinlääkäriasemalta. Tallenteissa esiintyy kolme eri eläinlääkäriä, jotka kaikki ovat naisia. Aineistoa on yhteensä noin 100 minuuttia, ja se on litteroitu keskustelunanalyysin konventioiden mukaisesti. Keskusteluasetelma on aiempiin keskustelunanalyyttisiin tutkimuksiin verrattuna poikkeuksellinen, koska tilanteessa on osallistujana ei-kielellinen olento, eläin. Vaikka eläimen ei voida odottaa ymmärtävän kieltä, sillekin esitettäviä direktiivejä usein pehmennetään. Määrällisesti merkittävimmiksi pehmentämisen keinoiksi osoittautuvat passiivi ja modaaliverbit. Passiivilla puhuja välttää mainitsemasta puhuteltavan persoonaa ja tietyssä kontekstissa tekee toiminnasta näennäisesti yhteistä. Modaaliverbeillä toiminnasta tehdään ei-ehdotonta, kun se ilmaistaan esimerkiksi luvallisena tai kannattavana. Modaaliverbeihin yhdistyy usein nollapersoona, jolla myös vältetään persoonan mainitseminen. Lisäksi keskusteluissa esiintyy runsaasti muita pehmentämisen keinoja, esimerkiksi epäsuoria ilmauksia ja varauksia kuten ehkä. Yllättävää on jos-partikkelin avulla muodostettavan ohjailevan lausuman suhteellinen yleisyys eläinlääkärikeskusteluissa. Jos otat tosta kiinni -tyyppinen direktiivi on saanut melko vähän huomiota aiemmissa direktiivitutkimuksissa mutta on tässä keskustelukontekstissa ilmeisen käyttökelpoinen. Tutkimuksessa selviää, että paljas, pehmentämätön imperatiivikäsky esitetään eläimenomistajalle vain poikkeustilanteessa, jossa suoruudelle on erityinen tarve. Eläimelle imperatiivikäskyjä voidaan kuitenkin esittää muulloinkin.

Why study translation universals?

Abstract: Research on translation universals has its roots in the need to make generalizations about the features that distinguish translations from non-translations. They go back to the old tradition of negative comments about the failings of typical translations. These comments concern the relations between translations and the target language, and between translations and their source texts. With the rise of descriptive studies, and the use of corpus research methods borrowed from linguistics, the search for the typical features of translations became more systematic. A number of hypotheses about potential universals have been proposed, and tested on different languages and language pairs. Some of them are evidently false; on others, the jury is still out. If some hypotheses continue to be supported by empirical evidence, the question then arises of how they might best be explained. There has been fierce criticism of some of the assumptions underlying the search for universals, including the use of the term 'universal'itself, but the approach has also brought clear methodological benefits.

Sångöversättning – någonstans mellan respekt och slagkraft

Abstract (Song translation. Balancing between respect and hit capacity): The article discusses song translation by posing questions relevant to the study, practice, and assessment of translating/translated song: Is song translation really translation? Do non-singable translations count? Can we distinguish between free and faithful song translation? Are there untranslatable (aspects of) songs? etc. Three song translations between Finnish and Swedish are analyzed in the discussion: one made for a booklet to a recording, which in spite of the evident documentary purpose is fairly singable, one that is a national transplantation, which moves the sung story to the target country but even so is fairly faithful, and one that is considered respectful to its source, became a target culture hit, but perhaps because of the subtle changes in content. Changes can be seen as caused by a particular translation brief, as manipulations negotiating a cultural difference, or as examples of how (liberally) the craft of song translation is exercised. An amateur translation of the same song, made by the article’s author, is deemed dysfunctional for having put emphasis merely on semantic accuracy and rhymes, neglecting other aspects of the craft. The article suggests that singability is a relative concept, that stylistic/intertextual values matter a great deal in song and exert significant influence on song translation, and that source and target attentions in this area can be discussed as a much variable vacillation between a stance of respect and an aim for hit capacity.

Mig eller mej, själ eller sjel? Problem och lösningar vid transkription av svenska sångtexter

Abstract (Mig or mej, själ or sjel? Problems and solutions in the transcription of Swedish song texts): In this article I am pointing out and discussing problems and solutions concerning phonetic transcription of Swedish song texts. My material consists of 66 Swedish songs phonetically transcribed. The transcriptions were published by The Academy of Finnish Art Song in 2009. The first issue was which level of accuracy should be chosen. The transcriptions were created to be clear at a glance and suitable for the needs of interpretation of non Swedish speaking singers. The principle was to use as few signs and symbols as possible without sacrificing accuracy. Certain songs were provided with additional information whenever there was a chance of misinterpretation. The second issue was which geographic variety of the language should be visible in the transcription, Standard Swedish or Finland-Swedish? The songs in the volume are a selection of well-known works that are also of international interest. Most were composed by Jean Sibelius (1865–1957), a substantial number of whose songs were based on poems written by Finland’s national poet, Johan Ludvig Runeberg (1804–1877). Thus I chose to use the variety of Swedish language spoken in Finland, in order to reflect the cultural origin of the songs. This variety differs slightly from the variety spoken in Sweden both on prosodic and phonetic level. In singing, the note-text gives the interpretor enough information about prosody. The differences concern mostly the phonemes. A fully consequent transcript was, however, difficult to make, due to vocal requirement. So, for example, in an unstressed final syllable the vowel was often indicated as a central vowel, which in singing is given a more direct emphasis than in a literal pronunciation, even if this central vowel does not occur in spoken Finland-Swedish.

Valkoinen läiskä kartalla : Perusvärinnimet ja niiden merkityskentät unkarin- ja suomenkielisissä idiomeissa

Työni tavoitteena on vertailla unkarilaisia ja suomalaisia idiomeja, joissa esiintyy jokin perusvärinnimi. Perusvärinnimiä ovat fehér (valkoinen), fekete (musta), szürke (harmaa), piros tai vörös (punainen), zöld (vihreä), sárga (keltainen), kék (sininen) ja barna (ruskea). Erityisesti pyrin ottamaan selvää käytetäänkö samaa värinnimeä molemmissa kielissä samasta asiasta vai onko värinnimien käytössä tarkasteltujen kielten välillä eroja. Vertailen unkarilaisia idiomeja suomalaisiin ja käytän vertailussa Tamás Forgácsin esittämää mallia ekvivalenssin lajeista. Aineisto on kerätty unkarin- ja suomenkielisistä fraasi- ja idiomisanakirjoista sekä yleissanakirjoista. Idiomi on yksi fraseologismien alaryhmistä. Idiomi koostuu vähintään kahdesta lekseemistä, jotka voidaan kirjoittaa joko yhteen tai erikseen. Idiomi on puhtaimmillaan opaakki, kiteytynyt sanaliitto, mutta idiomi voi olla myös osittain sananmukaisesti tulkittavissa. Idiomaattisuuden ja metaforisuuden aste on jatkumo, jonka toisessa päässä ovat täysin läpinäkymättömät ja toisessa transparentit sanaliitot. Idiomit ovat puhtaimmillaan tiettyyn kieleen sidottuja. Idiomit voivat olla kuitenkin laajalevikkisiä, koska niitä on lainattu eri kieliin suoraan kääntämällä esimerkiksi Raamatusta tai antiikin teksteistä. Viime vuosisatojen ja vuosikymmenten idiomit ovat hypoteettisesti useimmiten käännöslainoja jostain Euroopan valtakielestä. Värinnimitutkimuksen tunnetuimpia teorioita on Berlinin ja Kayn teoria kielessä esiintyvien värinnimien järjestyksestä. Heidän mukaansa musta, valkoinen ja punainen esiintyvät maailman kielissä kaikista yleisimmin, sininen, ruskea ja harmaa puolestaan esiintyvät vain korkeakulttuureissa, eivät esimerkiksi luonnonkansojen kielissä. Hypoteesini on, että aineistossa esiintyvien värinnimien lukumäärä korreloi jossain määrin Berlinin ja Kayn esittämän värinnimien järjestyksen kanssa. Täysin identtisiä idiomeja sanastoltaan ja merkitykseltään löytyy aineistosta suhteellisen paljon, useimmat näistä ovat valkoisen, mustan tai harmaan värin sisältäviä idiomeja. Täysin toisiaan vastaavista idiomeista suurin osa on tullut unkariin ja suomeen Raamatusta tai lainattu sellaisenaan englannista, saksasta tai ranskasta. Osittaisessa vastaavuussuhteessa ja funktionaalisessa vastaavuussuhteessa löytyy värinnimien kannalta mielenkiintoisimmat idiomit: keltainen ja vihreä esiintyvät parissa idiomissa ristikkäin. Pääasiassa idiomeissa esiintyvät värinnimet ovat unkarin ja suomen välillä identtisiä, mikäli unkarilaiselle idiomille löytyy vastine suomen kielestä. Idiomit ilman vastinetta ovat aineiston suurin ja samalla myös kirjavin ryhmä analysoitavaksi, pienin ryhmä puolestaan ovat leksikaalisen vastaavuuden ryhmään kuuluvat idiomit. Suurin osa unkarilaisista idiomeista on työssä analysoitu, mutta suomenkieliset vastineettomat idiomit jäävät vähäiselle huomiolle tutkimusongelman näkökulmasta johtuen. Aineiston 143 unkarilaisesta idiomista noin puolet sijoittuu nollaekvivalenssin eli vastineettomien idiomien ryhmään. Täydellisen ekvivalenssin ryhmä on toiseksi suurin, leksikaalisen vastaavuuden ryhmä pienin. Idiomeissa esiintyvistä väreistä yleisimpiä ovat musta, valkoinen, punainen ja vihreä. Ruskeaa väriä ei esiinny unkarilaisissa idiomeissa lainkaan, suomalaisissa idiomeissa viidessä. Unkarin ja suomen värien merkityskentät vastaavat pitkälti toisiaan. Ainoastaan keltainen ja vihreä esiintyivät selkeästi ristikkäin: unkariksi kateus on keltaista ja suomeksi vihreää, tulokkaaseen liitetään unkarissa vihreä, suomessa keltainen väri.