Teollisuusjätevesien sadetustyöryhmän loppuraportti

Spray irrigation of industrial waste water.

Bridging East and West : The Establishment of the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) in the United States Foreign Policy of Bridge Building, 1964-1972.

The dissertation examines the foreign policies of the United States through the prism of science and technology. In the focal point of scrutiny is the policy establishing the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) and the development of the multilateral part of bridge building in American foreign policy during the 1960s and early 1970s. After a long and arduous negotiation process, the institute was finally established by twelve national member organizations from the following countries: Bulgaria, Canada, Czechoslovakia, Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), France, German Democratic Republic (GDR), Great Britain, Italy, Japan, Poland, Soviet Union and United States; a few years later Sweden, Finland and the Netherlands also joined. It is said that the goal of the institute was to bring together researchers from East and West to solve pertinent problems caused by the modernization process experienced in industrialized world. It originates from President Lyndon B. Johnson s bridge building policies that were launched in 1964, and was set in a well-contested and crowded domain of other international organizations of environmental and social planning. Since the distinct need for yet another organization was not evident, the process of negotiations in this multinational environment enlightens the foreign policy ambitions of the United States on the road to the Cold War détente. The study places this project within its political era, and juxtaposes it with other international organizations, especially that of the OECD, ECE and NATO. Conventionally, Lyndon Johnson s bridge building policies have been seen as a means to normalize its international relations bilaterally with different East European countries, and the multilateral dimension of the policy has been ignored. This is why IIASA s establishment process in this multilateral environment brings forth new information on US foreign policy goals, the means to achieve these goals, as well as its relations to other advanced industrialized societies before the time of détente, during the 1960s and early 1970s. Furthermore, the substance of the institute applied systems analysis illuminates the differences between European and American methodological thinking in social planning. Systems analysis is closely associated with (American) science and technology policies of the 1960s, especially in its military administrative applications, thus analysis within the foreign policy environment of the United States proved particularly fruitful. In the 1960s the institutional structures of European continent with faltering, and the growing tendencies of integration were in flux. One example of this was the long, drawn-out process of British membership in the EEC, another is de Gaulle s withdrawal from NATO s military-political cooperation. On the other hand, however, economic cooperation in Europe between East and West, and especially with the Soviet Union was expanding rapidly. This American initiative to form a new institutional actor has to be seen in that structural context, showing that bridge building was needed not only to the East, but also to the West. The narrative amounts to an analysis of how the United States managed both cooperation and conflict in its hegemonic aspirations in the emerging modern world, and how it used its special relationship with the United Kingdom to achieve its goals. The research is based on the archives of the United States, Great Britain, Sweden, Finland, and IIASA. The primary sources have been complemented with both contemporary and present day research literature, periodicals, and interviews.

Traditionally Protected Forests´ Role within Transforming Natural Resource Management Regimes in Taita Hills, Kenya

In Taita Hills, south-eastern Kenya, remnants of indigenous mountain rainforests play a crucial role as water towers and socio-cultural sites. They are pressurized due to poverty, shortage of cultivable land and the fading of traditional knowledge. This study examines the traditional ecological knowledge of Taitas and the ways it may be applied within transforming natural resource management regimes. I have analyzed some justifications for and hindrances to ethnodevelopment and participatory forest management in light of recently renewed Kenyan forest policies. Mixed methods were applied by combining an ethnographic approach with participatory GIS. I learned about traditionally protected forests and their ecological and cultural status through a seek out the expert method and with remote sensing data and tools. My informants were: 107 household interviewees, 257 focus group participants, 73 key informants and 87 common informants in participatory mapping. Religious leaders and state officials shared their knowledge for this study. I have gained a better understanding of the traditionally protected forests and sites through examining their ecological characteristics and relation to social dynamics, by evaluating their strengths and hindrances as sites for conservation of cultural and biological diversity. My results show that, these sites are important components of a complex socio-ecological system, which has symbolical status and sacred and mystical elements within it, that contributes to the connectivity of remnant forests in the agroforestry dominated landscape. Altogether, 255 plant species and 220 uses were recognized by the tradition experts, whereas 161 species with 108 beneficial uses were listed by farmers. Out of the traditionally protected forests studied 47 % were on private land and 23% on community land, leaving 9% within state forest reserves. A paradigm shift in conservation is needed; the conservation area approach is not functional for private lands or areas trusted upon communities. The role of traditionally protected forests in community-based forest management is, however, paradoxal, since communal approaches suggests equal participation of people, whereas management of these sites has traditionally been the duty of solely accredited experts in the village. As modernization has gathered pace such experts have become fewer. Sacredness clearly contributes but, it does not equal conservation. Various social, political and economic arrangements further affect the integrity of traditionally protected forests and sites, control of witchcraft being one of them. My results suggest that the Taita have a rich traditional ecological knowledge base, which should be more determinately integrated into the natural resource management planning processes.

Rätt som argument : Leo Mechelin och finska frågan 1886-1912

Right as an Argument. Leo Mechelin and the Finnish Question 1886-1912 At the turn of the 20th century the Finnish Question rose up as a political and juridical issue at the international arena. The vaguely précised position of Finland in the Russian empire led to diverse conclusions concerning the correctness of the February manifesto of 1899. It was predominantly among a European elite of politicians, cultural workers and academics the issue rose some interest. Finns were active making propaganda for their cause, and they put an emphasis on the claim that the right was on the Finnish side. In the study Elisabeth Stubb compare the Finnish, Russian and European statements about the Finnish Question and analyse their use of right as an argument. The Finnish Question offers at the same time a case study of a national entity which possesses a political sphere of life but is not fully independent, and its possibilities to drive its interests in an international context. Leo Mechelin (1839-1914), the leader of the Finnish propaganda organization abroad, is used as a point of departure. The biographical stance is formed into a triangle, where Leo Mechelin, the idea of right and the Finnish Question abroad are the three cornerstones. The treatment of one cornerstone sheds a ligth on the two others. The metaphor of triangulation also worked as a method to reach "a third stance" in a scinetific and political issue that usually is polarised into two opposite alternatives. An adherence to a strict legal right could not in the end offer a complete, unquestionable and satisfactory solution to the Finnsih Question, it was dependent on "the right of state wisdom and sound insight". The Finnish propaganda abroad used almost completely alternative ways of making politics. The propaganda did not have a decisive effect on countries' official politics, but gained unofficial support, especially in the public opinion and in academic statements. Mechelin claimed that the political field was dependent on public opinion and scientific research. Together with the official politics these two fields formed a triangle that shared the task of balancing the political arena and preventing it from making unwise decisions of taking an unjust turn. The international sphere worked as a balancing part in the Finnish Question. Mechelin tried by claiming the status of state for Finland's part to secure the country a place at the official international arena. At the same time, and especially when the claim was not fully adopted, he emphasised, and in a European context worked for, that right would become the guiding light not only for international relations, but also for the policy making in the inner life of the state.

Uusien lääkkeiden markkinoille tulo ja lääkekustannuksiin vaikuttaminen

Lääkekustannukset kasvoivat 2000-luvulla useimmissa teollistuneissa maissa terveydenhuollon kokonaismenoja nopeammin. Lääkkeiden rahoituksesta vastaavat ovatkin etsineet keinoja kustannusten kasvun hillitsemiseksi. Uudet, vanhoja lääkkeitä kalliimmat lääkkeet ovat yksi syy kustannusten kasvuun. Tämän tutkimuksen tarkoitus oli selvittää uusien, avohoidossa käytettävien lääkkeiden käyttöönottoa, hintoja ja kustannuksia sekä analysoida lääkkeen erityiskorvattavuutta edeltävän peruskorvattavuusjakson ja korvauksen rajoittamisen vaikutuksia lääkkeiden kulutukseen ja hoitojen kohdentumiseen. Tutkimusten aineistoina käytettiin muun muassa Lääkelaitoksen ja Kelan tietokantoja ja lääkkeiden tukkumyyntitietoja. Lääkkeiden hintatiedot Euroopan maista kerättiin kyselyllä. Suomen markkinoille tuli vuosina 1996–2005 lähes 300 uutta lääkeainetta. Vuonna 2005 niiden osuus avohoidon lääkemyynnin arvosta oli 38 % ja kulutuksesta 19 %. Avohoidossa uutuuksia tuli erityisesti syöpien, infektioiden ja sydän- ja verisuonisairauksien hoitoon. Osa uutuuksista tarjosi merkittäviä uusia hoitomahdollisuuksia, osan lisähyöty oli vähäinen. Tiukan hintasääntelyn maissa uusien lääkkeiden tukkuhinnat olivat alhaisemmat kuin niissä maissa, joissa ei ollut suoraa sääntelyä. Maan asema tukkuhintojen vertailussa ei kuitenkaan määrittänyt sen asemaa vähittäismyyntihintaisessa vertailussa, sillä apteekkien kate ja verot vaihtelevat maittain. Suomessa uusien lääkkeiden tukkuhinnat olivat eurooppalaista keskitasoa, mutta verolliset vähittäismyyntihinnat keskitasoa korkeammat. Glaukooma-lääkkeillä erityiskorvattavuutta edeltävä peruskorvattavuusjakso hidasti uusien valmisteiden käyttöönottoa. Lääkkeiden tultua erityiskorvattaviksi niiden käyttäjämäärä ja kulutus kasvoivat. Kalleimpien statiinien korvauksen rajoittaminen niille potilaille, joille edullisemmat eivät sovi, lisäsi edullisten statiinien käyttöä. Rajoituksen jälkeen kalleimmat statiinit kanavoituivat sairaammille ja aiemmin muita statiineja käyttäneille. Toimenpiteiden pitkäaikaisvaikutuksista ja terveysvaikutuksista ei ole tietoa.