Parathyroid hormone as an outcome indicator in old age

Serum parathyroid hormone (PTH) and vitamin D are the major regulators of extracellular calcium homeostasis. The inverse association between PTH and vitamin D and the common age-related elevation of the PTH concentration are well known phenomena. However, the confounding or modifying factors of this relationship and their impact on the response of PTH levels to vitamin D supplementation need further investigation. Clinical conditions such as primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT), renal failure and vitamin D deficiency, characterized by an elevation of the PTH concentration, have been associated with impaired long-term health outcomes. Curative treatments for these conditions have also been shown to decreases PTH concentration and attenuate some of the adverse health effects. In PHPT it has also been commonly held that hypercalcaemia, the other hallmark of the disease, is the key mediator of the adverse health outcomes. In chronic kidney disease the systemic vascular disease has been proposed to have the most important impact on general health. Some evidence also indicates that vitamin D may have significant extraskeletal actions. However, the frank elevation of PTH concentration seen in advanced PHPT and in end-stage renal failure have also been suggested to be at least partly causally related to an increased risk of death as well as cognitive dysfunction. However, the exact mechanisms have remained unclear. Furthermore, the predictive value of elevated PTH in unselected older populations has been less well studied. The studies presented in this thesis investigated the impact of age and mobility on the responses of PTH levels to vitamin D deficiency and supplementation. Furthermore, the predictive value of PTH for long-term survival and cognitive decline was addressed in an unselected population of older people. The hypothesis was that age and chronic immobility are related to a persistently blunted elevation of PTH concentration, even in the presence of chronic vitamin D deficiency, and to attenuated responses of PTH to vitamin D supplementation. It was also further hypothesized that a slightly elevated or even high-normal PTH concentration is an independent indicator of an increased risk of death and cognitive decline in the general aged population. The data of this thesis are based on three samples: a meta-analysis of published vitamin D supplementation trials, a randomized placebo controlled six-month vitamin D supplementation trial, and a longitudinal prospective cohort study on a general aged population. Based on a PubMed search, a meta-analysis of 52 clinical trials with 6 290 adult participants was performed to evaluate the impact of age and immobility on the responses of PTH to 25-OHD levels and vitamin D supplementation. A total of 218 chronically immobile, very old inpatients were also enrolled into a vitamin D supplementation trial. Mortality data for these patients was also collected after a two-year follow-up. Finally, data from the Helsinki Aging Study, which followed three random age cohorts (75, 80 and 85 years) until death in almost all subjects, was used to evaluate the predictive value of PTH for long-term survival and cognitive decline. This series of studies demonstrated that in older people without overt renal failure or severe hypercalcaemia, serum 25-OHD and PTH were closely associated, but this relationship was also affected by age and immobility. Furthermore, a substantial proportion of old chronically bedridden patients did not respond to vitamin D deficiency by elevating PTH, and the effect of a high-dose (1200 IU/d) six-month cholecalciferol supplementation on the PTH concentration was minor. This study demonstrated longitudinally for the first time that the blunted PTH also persisted over time. Even a subtle elevation of PTH to high-normal levels predicted impaired long-term health outcomes. Slightly elevated PTH concentrations indicated an increased risk of clinically significant cognitive decline and death during the last years of life in a general aged population. This association was also independent of serum ionized calcium (Ca2+) and the estimated glomerular filtration rate (GFR). A slightly elevated PTH also indicated impaired two-year survival during the terminal years of frail elderly subjects independently of Ca2+, GFR, and of 25-OHD levels. The interplay between PTH and vitamin D in the regulation of calcium homeostasis is more complex than has been generally considered. In addition to muskuloskeletal health parathyroid hormone is also related to the maintenance of other important domains of health in old age. Higher PTH concentrations, even within conventional laboratory reference ranges, seem to be an independent indicator of an increased risk of all-cause and of cardiovascular mortality, independently of established cardiovascular risk factors, disturbances in mineral metabolism, and renal failure. Limited and inconsistent evidence supports the role of vitamin D deficiency-related lack of neuroprotective effects over the causal association between PTH and impaired cognitive functions. However, the causality of these associations remains unclear. The clinical implications of the observed relationships remain to be elucidated by future studies interfering with PTH concentrations, especially by long-term interventions to reduce PTH.

Augustine and the functions of concupiscence

This study analyses Augustine s concept of concupiscentia, or evil desire (together with two cognate terms, libido and cupiditas) in the context of his entire oeuvre. By the aid of systematic analysis, the concept and its development is explored in four distinct ways. It is claimed that Augustine used the concept of concupiscentia for several theological purposes, and the task of the study is to represent these distinct functions, and their connections to Augustine s general theological and philosophical convictions. The study opens with a survey on terminology. A general overview of the occurrences of the negatively connoted words for desire in Latin literature precedes a corresponding examination of Augustine s own works. In this introductory chapter it is shown that, despite certain preferences in the uses of the words, a sufficient degree of synonymy reigns so as to allow an analysis of the concept without tightly discriminating between the terms. The theological functions of concupiscentia with its distinct contexts are analysed in separate chapters. The function of concupiscentia as a divine punishment is explored first (Ch 3). It is seen how Augustine links together concupiscentia and ideas about divine justice, and finally suggests that in the inordinate, psychologically experienced sexual desire, the original theological disobedience of Adam and Eve can be perceived. Augustine was criticized for this solution already in his own times, and the analysis of the function of concupiscentia as a divine punishment ends in a discussion on the critical response of punitive concupiscentia by Julian of Aeclanum. Augustine also attached to concupiscentia another central theological function by viewing evil desire as an inward originating cause for all external evil actions. In the study, this function is analysed by surveying two formally distinct images of evil desire, i.e. as the root (radix) of all evil, and as a threefold (triplex) matrix of evil actions (Ch 4). Both of these images were based on a single verse of the Bible (1 Jn 2, 16 and 1 Tim 6, 10). This function of concupiscentia was formed both parallel to, and in answer to, Manichaean insights into concupiscentia. Being familiar with the traditional philosophical discussions on the nature and therapy of emotions, Augustine situated concupiscentia also into this context. It is acknowledged that these philosophical traditions had an obvious impact into his way of explaining psychological processes in connection with concupiscentia. Not only did Augustine implicitly receive and exploit these traditions, but he also explicitly moulded and criticized them in connection with concupiscentia. Eventually, Augustine conceives the philosophical traditions of emotions as partly useful but also partly inadequate to deal with concupiscentia (Ch 5). The role of concupiscentia in connection to divine grace and Christian renewal is analysed in the final chapter of the study. Augustine s gradual development in internalizing the effects of concupiscentia also into the life of a baptized Christian are elucidated, as are the strong limitations and mitigations Augustine makes to the concept when attaching it into the life under grace (sub gratia). A crucial part in the development of this function is played by Augustine s changing interpretation of Rom 7, and the way concupiscentia appears in Augustine s readings of this text is therefore also analysed. As a result of the analysis of these four distinct functions and contexts of concupiscentia, it is concluded that Augustine s concept of concupiscentia is fairly tightly and coherently connected to his views of central theological importance. Especially the functions of concupiscentia as a punishment and the function of concupiscentia in Christian renewal were both tightly interwoven into Augustine s view of God s being and God s grace. The study shows the importance of reading Augustine s discussions on evil desire with a constant awareness of their role in their larger context, that is, of their function in each situation. The study warns against too simplistic and unifying readings of Augustine s concupiscentia, emphasizing the need to acknowledge both the necessitating, sinful aspects of concupiscentia, and the domesticated features of concupiscentia during Christian renewal.

Heme oxygenase-1 in cardiovascular diseases

Myocardial infarction (MI) and heart failure are major causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Treatment of MI involves early restoration of blood flow to limit infarct size and preserve cardiac function. MI leads to left ventricular remodeling, which may eventually progress to heart failure, despite the established pharmacological treatment of the disease. To improve outcome of MI, new strategies for protecting the myocardium against ischemic injury and enhancing the recovery and repair of the infarcted heart are needed. Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) is a stress-responsive and cytoprotective enzyme catalyzing the degradation of heme into the biologically active reaction products biliverdin/bilirubin, carbon monoxide (CO) and free iron. HO-1 plays a key role in maintaining cellular homeostasis by its antiapoptotic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidative and proangiogenic properties. The present study aimed, first, at evaluating the role of HO-1 as a cardioprotective and prohealing enzyme in experimental rat models and at investigating the potential mechanisms mediating the beneficial effects of HO-1 in the heart. The second aim was to evaluate the role of HO-1 in 231 critically ill intensive care unit (ICU) patients by investigating the association of HO-1 polymorphisms and HO-1 plasma concentrations with illness severity, organ dysfunction and mortality throughout the study population and in the subgroup of cardiac patients. We observed in an experimental rat MI model, that HO-1 expression was induced in the infarcted rat hearts, especially in the infarct and infarct border areas. In addition, pre-emptive HO-1 induction and CO donor pretreatment promoted recovery and repair of the infarcted hearts by differential mechanisms. CO promoted vasculogenesis and formation of new cardiomyocytes by activating c-kit+ stem/progenitor cells via hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha, stromal cell-derived factor 1 alpha (SDF-1a) and vascular endothelial growth factor B, whereas HO-1 promoted angiogenesis possibly via SDF-1a. Furthermore, HO-1 protected the heart in the early phase of infarct healing by increasing survival and proliferation of cardiomyocytes. The antiapoptotic effect of HO-1 persisted in the late phases of infarct healing. HO-1 also modulated the production of extracellular matrix components and reduced perivascular fibrosis. Some of these beneficial effects of HO-1 were mediated by CO, e.g. the antiapoptotic effect. However, CO may also have adverse effects on the heart, since it increased the expression of extracellular matrix components. In isolated perfused rat hearts, HO-1 induction improved the recovery of postischemic cardiac function and abrogated reperfusion-induced ventricular fibrillation, possibly in part via connexin 43. We found that HO-1 plasma levels were increased in all critically ill patients, including cardiac patients, and were associated with the degree of organ dysfunction and disease severity. HO-1 plasma concentrations were also higher in ICU and hospital nonsurvivors than in survivors, and the maximum HO-1 concentration was an independent predictor of hospital mortality. Patients with the HO-1 -413T/GT(L)/+99C haplotype had lower HO-1 plasma concentrations and lower incidence of multiple organ dysfunction. However, HO-1 polymorphisms were not associated with ICU or hospital mortality. The present study shows that HO-1 is induced in response to stress in both experimental animal models and severely ill patients. HO-1 played an important role in the recovery and repair of infarcted rat hearts. HO-1 induction and CO donor pretreatment enhanced cardiac regeneration after MI, and HO-1 may protect against pathological left ventricular remodeling. Furthermore, HO-1 induction potentially may protect against I/R injury and cardiac dysfunction in isolated rat hearts. In critically ill ICU patients, HO-1 plasma levels correlate with the degree of organ dysfunction, disease severity, and mortality, suggesting that HO-1 may be useful as a marker of disease severity and in the assessment of outcome of critically ill patients.

Carbon dynamics in peatlands under changing hydrology : Effects of water level drawdown on litter quality, microbial enzyme activities and litter decomposition rates

Pristine peatlands are carbon (C) accumulating wetland ecosystems sustained by a high water level (WL) and consequent anoxia that slows down decomposition. Persistent WL drawdown as a response to climate and/or land-use change directly affects decomposition: increased oxygenation stimulates decomposition of the old C (peat) sequestered under prior anoxic conditions. Responses of the new C (plant litter) in terms of quality, production and decomposability, and the consequences for the whole C cycle of peatlands are not fully understood. WL drawdown induces changes in plant community resulting in shift in dominance from Sphagnum and graminoids to shrubs and trees. There is increasing evidence that the indirect effects of WL drawdown via the changes in plant communities will have more impact on the ecosystem C cycling than any direct effects. The aim of this study is to disentangle the direct and indirect effects of WL drawdown on the new C by measuring the relative importance of 1) environmental parameters (WL depth, temperature, soil chemistry) and 2) plant community composition on litter production, microbial activity, litter decomposition rates and, consequently, on the C accumulation. This information is crucial for modelling C cycle under changing climate and/or land-use. The effects of WL drawdown were tested in a large-scale experiment with manipulated WL at two time scales and three nutrient regimes. Furthermore, the effect of climate on litter decomposability was tested along a north-south gradient. Additionally, a novel method for estimating litter chemical quality and decomposability was explored by combining Near infrared spectroscopy with multivariate modelling. WL drawdown had direct effects on litter quality, microbial community composition and activity and litter decomposition rates. However, the direct effects of WL drawdown were overruled by the indirect effects via changes in litter type composition and production. Short-term (years) responses to WL drawdown were small. In long-term (decades), dramatically increased litter inputs resulted in large accumulation of organic matter in spite of increased decomposition rates. Further, the quality of the accumulated matter greatly changed from that accumulated in pristine conditions. The response of a peatland ecosystem to persistent WL drawdown was more pronounced at sites with more nutrients. The study demonstrates that the shift in vegetation composition as a response to climate and/or land-use change is the main factor affecting peatland ecosystem C cycle and thus dynamic vegetation is a necessity in any models applied for estimating responses of C fluxes to changes in the environment. The time scale for vegetation changes caused by hydrological changes needs to extend to decades. This study provides grouping of litter types (plant species and part) into functional types based on their chemical quality and/or decomposability that the models could utilize. Further, the results clearly show a drop in soil temperature as a response to WL drawdown when an initially open peatland converts into a forest ecosystem, which has not yet been considered in the existing models.

Finnish and Austrian Wood Markets in a Changing Environment

At present the operating environment of sawmills in Europe is changing and there are uncertainties related in raw material supply in many countries. The changes in the operating environment of roundwood markets and the effects followed by these changes have brought up several interesting issues from the viewpoint of research. Lately new factors have been influencing the roundwood markets, such as increasing interest towards wood-based energy and implementation of new energy policies as well as changes in wood trade flows that affect the domestic markets in many countries. This Master’s thesis studies the adaptation ability of Finnish roundwood markets in a changing operating environment, aiming to produce an up-to-date analysis considering new development trends. The study concentrates on the roundwood markets from the viewpoint of sawmill industry since the industry is dependent on the functioning of the markets and sawmills are highly affected by the changes on the roundwood markets. To facilitate international comparison, the study is implemented by comparing Finnish and Austrian roundwood markets and analysing changes happening in the two countries. Finland and Austria share rather similar characteristics in the roundwood market structures, forest resources and forest ownership as well as production of roundwood and sawnwood. In addition they both are big exporters of forest industry products. In this study changes in the operating environment of sawmill industry both in Finland as well as in Austria are compared to each other aiming to recognise the main similarities and differences between the countries. In addition both development possibilities as well as challenges followed by the changes are discussed. The aim of the study is to define the main challenges and possibilities confronted by the actors on the markets and also to find new perspectives to approach these. The study is implemented as a qualitative study. The theoretical framework of the study describes the operating environment of wood markets from the viewpoint of the sawmill industry and represents the effects of supply and demand on the wood markets. The primary research material of the study was gathered by interviewing high level experts of forestry and sawmill industry in both Finland and Austria. The aim was to receive as extensive country specific viewpoint from the markets as possible, hence interviewees represented different parties of the markets. After creating country-specific profiles based on the theoretical framework a cross-country comparison was implemented. As a consequence the main similarities and differences in the operating environment and on the roundwood markets of Finland and Austria were recognized. In addition the main challenges and possibilites were identified. The results of the study offer a wide analysis regarding the main similarities and differences of the wood markets of Finland and Austria and their operating environments as well as concerning challenges and possibilities faced on the markets.

Canopy processes, fluxes and microclimate in a pine forest

Interaction between forests and the atmosphere occurs by radiative and turbulent transport. The fluxes of energy and mass between surface and the atmosphere directly influence the properties of the lower atmosphere and in longer time scales the global climate. Boreal forest ecosystems are central in the global climate system, and its responses to human activities, because they are significant sources and sinks of greenhouse gases and of aerosol particles. The aim of the present work was to improve our understanding on the existing interplay between biologically active canopy, microenvironment and turbulent flow and quantify. In specific, the aim was to quantify the contribution of different canopy layers to whole forest fluxes. For this purpose, long-term micrometeorological and ecological measurements made in a Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) forest at SMEAR II research station in Southern Finland were used. The properties of turbulent flow are strongly modified by the interaction between the canopy elements: momentum is efficiently absorbed in the upper layers of the canopy, mean wind speed and turbulence intensities decrease rapidly towards the forest floor and power spectra is modulated by spectral short-cut . In the relative open forest, diabatic stability above the canopy explained much of the changes in velocity statistics within the canopy except in strongly stable stratification. Large eddies, ranging from tens to hundred meters in size, were responsible for the major fraction of turbulent transport between a forest and the atmosphere. Because of this, the eddy-covariance (EC) method proved to be successful for measuring energy and mass exchange inside a forest canopy with exception of strongly stable conditions. Vertical variations of within canopy microclimate, light attenuation in particular, affect strongly the assimilation and transpiration rates. According to model simulations, assimilation rate decreases with height more rapidly than stomatal conductance (gs) and transpiration and, consequently, the vertical source-sink distributions for carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor (H2O) diverge. Upscaling from a shoot scale to canopy scale was found to be sensitive to chosen stomatal control description. The upscaled canopy level CO2 fluxes can vary as much as 15 % and H2O fluxes 30 % even if the gs models are calibrated against same leaf-level dataset. A pine forest has distinct overstory and understory layers, which both contribute significantly to canopy scale fluxes. The forest floor vegetation and soil accounted between 18 and 25 % of evapotranspiration and between 10 and 20 % of sensible heat exchange. Forest floor was also an important deposition surface for aerosol particles; between 10 and 35 % of dry deposition of particles within size range 10 30 nm occurred there. Because of the northern latitudes, seasonal cycle of climatic factors strongly influence the surface fluxes. Besides the seasonal constraints, partitioning of available energy to sensible and latent heat depends, through stomatal control, on the physiological state of the vegetation. In spring, available energy is consumed mainly as sensible heat and latent heat flux peaked about two months later, in July August. On the other hand, annual evapotranspiration remains rather stable over range of environmental conditions and thus any increase of accumulated radiation affects primarily the sensible heat exchange. Finally, autumn temperature had strong effect on ecosystem respiration but its influence on photosynthetic CO2 uptake was restricted by low radiation levels. Therefore, the projected autumn warming in the coming decades will presumably reduce the positive effects of earlier spring recovery in terms of carbon uptake potential of boreal forests.

Climate change and agriculture: theory and application of mitigation policies

Agriculture’s contribution to climate change is controversial as it is a significant source of greenhouse gases but also a sink of carbon. Hence its economic and technological potential to mitigate climate change have been argued to be noteworthy. However, social profitability of emission mitigation is a result from factors among emission reductions such as surface water quality impact or profit from production. Consequently, to value comprehensive results of agricultural climate emission mitigation practices, these co-effects to environment and economics should be taken into account. The objective of this thesis was to develop an integrated economic and ecological model to analyse the social welfare of crop cultivation in Finland on distinctive cultivation technologies, conventional tillage and conservation tillage (no-till). Further, we ask whether it would be privately or socially profitable to allocate some of barley cultivation for alternative land use, such as green set-aside or afforestation, when production costs, GHG’s and water quality impacts are taken into account. In the theoretical framework we depict the optimal input use and land allocation choices in terms of environmental impacts and profit from production and derive the optimal tax and payment policies for climate and water quality friendly land allocation. The empirical application of the model uses Finnish data about production cost and profit structure and environmental impacts. According to our results, given emission mitigation practices are not self-evidently beneficial for farmers or society. On the contrary, in some cases alternative land allocation could even reduce social welfare, profiting conventional crop cultivation. This is the case regarding mineral soils such as clay and silt soils. On organic agricultural soils, climate mitigation practices, in this case afforestation and green fallow give more promising results, decreasing climate emissions and nutrient runoff to water systems. No-till technology does not seem to profit climate mitigation although it does decrease other environmental impacts. Nevertheless, the data behind climate emission mitigation practices impact to production and climate is limited and partly contradictory. More specific experiment studies on interaction of emission mitigation practices and environment would be needed. Further study would be important. Particularly area specific production and environmental factors and also food security and safety and socio-economic impacts should be taken into account.

From environmental concerns towards sustainable food provisioning. : Material flow and food consumption scenario studies on sustainability of agri-food systems

Agriculture is an economic activity that heavily relies on the availability of natural resources. Through its role in food production agriculture is a major factor affecting public welfare and health, and its indirect contribution to gross domestic product and employment is significant. Agriculture also contributes to numerous ecosystem services through management of rural areas. However, the environmental impact of agriculture is considerable and reaches far beyond the agroecosystems. The questions related to farming for food production are, thus, manifold and of great public concern. Improving environmental performance of agriculture and sustainability of food production, sustainabilizing food production, calls for application of wide range of expertise knowledge. This study falls within the field of agro-ecology, with interphases to food systems and sustainability research and exploits the methods typical of industrial ecology. The research in these fields extends from multidisciplinary to interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary, a holistic approach being the key tenet. The methods of industrial ecology have been applied extensively to explore the interaction between human economic activity and resource use. Specifically, the material flow approach (MFA) has established its position through application of systematic environmental and economic accounting statistics. However, very few studies have applied MFA specifically to agriculture. The MFA approach was used in this thesis in such a context in Finland. The focus of this study is the ecological sustainability of primary production. The aim was to explore the possibilities of assessing ecological sustainability of agriculture by using two different approaches. In the first approach the MFA-methods from industrial ecology were applied to agriculture, whereas the other is based on the food consumption scenarios. The two approaches were used in order to capture some of the impacts of dietary changes and of changes in production mode on the environment. The methods were applied at levels ranging from national to sector and local levels. Through the supply-demand approach, the viewpoint changed between that of food production to that of food consumption. The main data sources were official statistics complemented with published research results and expertise appraisals. MFA approach was used to define the system boundaries, to quantify the material flows and to construct eco-efficiency indicators for agriculture. The results were further elaborated for an input-output model that was used to analyse the food flux in Finland and to determine its relationship to the economy-wide physical and monetary flows. The methods based on food consumption scenarios were applied at regional and local level for assessing feasibility and environmental impacts of relocalising food production. The approach was also used for quantification and source allocation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of primary production. GHG assessment provided, thus, a means of crosschecking the results obtained by using the two different approaches. MFA data as such or expressed as eco-efficiency indicators, are useful in describing the overall development. However, the data are not sufficiently detailed for identifying the hot spots of environmental sustainability. Eco-efficiency indicators should not be bluntly used in environmental assessment: the carrying capacity of the nature, the potential exhaustion of non-renewable natural resources and the possible rebound effect need also to be accounted for when striving towards improved eco-efficiency. The input-output model is suitable for nationwide economy analyses and it shows the distribution of monetary and material flows among the various sectors. Environmental impact can be captured only at a very general level in terms of total material requirement, gaseous emissions, energy consumption and agricultural land use. Improving environmental performance of food production requires more detailed and more local information. The approach based on food consumption scenarios can be applied at regional or local scales. Based on various diet options the method accounts for the feasibility of re-localising food production and environmental impacts of such re-localisation in terms of nutrient balances, gaseous emissions, agricultural energy consumption, agricultural land use and diversity of crop cultivation. The approach is applicable anywhere, but the calculation parameters need to be adjusted so as to comply with the specific circumstances. The food consumption scenario approach, thus, pays attention to the variability of production circumstances, and may provide some environmental information that is locally relevant. The approaches based on the input-output model and on food consumption scenarios represent small steps towards more holistic systemic thinking. However, neither one alone nor the two together provide sufficient information for sustainabilizing food production. Environmental performance of food production should be assessed together with the other criteria of sustainable food provisioning. This requires evaluation and integration of research results from many different disciplines in the context of a specified geographic area. Foodshed area that comprises both the rural hinterlands of food production and the population centres of food consumption is suggested to represent a suitable areal extent for such research. Finding a balance between the various aspects of sustainability is a matter of optimal trade-off. The balance cannot be universally determined, but the assessment methods and the actual measures depend on what the bottlenecks of sustainability are in the area concerned. These have to be agreed upon among the actors of the area

Nainen, mies, rakkaus, seksi : Heterosuhteen kulku, kulttuurinen malli ja sitä selittävät diskurssit kahden omaelämäkerta-aineiston valossa

The subject matter of this study is the cultural knowledge concerning romantic male-female relationships in autobiographies written by so called ordinary Finnish men and women born between 1901 and 1965. The research data (98 autobiographies) is selected from two collections by the Finnish Literature Society s folklore archives in the early 1990 s. Autobiographies are cultural representations where negotiation of shared cultural models and personal meanings given to hetero-relationship is evident in an interesting manner. In this research I analyze autobiographies as a written folklore genre. Information concerning male-female relationships is being analyzed using theoretically informed close readings thematic analysis, intertextual reading and reflexive reading. Theoretical implications stem from cognitive anthropology (the idea of cultural models) and an adaptation of discourse theory inspired by Michel Foucault. The structure of the analysis follows the structure of the shared knowledge concerning romantic male-female relationship: the first phase of analysis presents the script of a hetero-relationship and then moves into the actual structure, the cultural model of a relationship. The components of the model of relationship are, as mentioned in the title of the research, woman, man, love and sex. The research shows that all the writers share this basic knowledge concerning a heterosexual relationship despite their age, background or gender. Also the conflicts described and experienced in the relationships of the writers were similar throughout the timespan of the early 1900 s to 1990 s: lack of love, inability to reconcile sexual desires, housework, sharing the responsibility of childcare and financial problems. The research claims that the conflicts in relationships are a major cause for the binary view on gender. When relationships are harmonious, there seems to be no need to see men and women as opposites. The research names five important discourses present in the meaning giving processes of autobiographers. In doing so, the stabile cultural model of male-female relationship widens to show the complexity and variation in data. In this way it is possible to detect some age and gender specific shifts and emphasis. The discourses give meaning to the components of the cultural model and determine the contents of womanhood, manhood, sexuality and love. The way these discourses are spread and their authority are different: the romantic discourse evident in the autobiographies appeal to the authority of love supreme love is the purpose of male-female relationship and it justifies sexuality. In this discourse sex can be the place for confluence of genders. The ideas of romantic love are widely spread in popular culture. Popular scientific discourse defines a relationship as a site to become a man and a woman either from a psychological or a biological point of view. Genders are seen as opposites. These ideas are often presented in media and their authority in science which is seen as infallible. The Christian discourse defines men and women: both should work for the benefit of the nuclear family under the undisputed authority of God. Marital love is based on Christian virtues and within marriage sexuality is acceptable. The discourse I ve named folk tradition defines women and men as guardians of home and offspring. The authority of folk tradition comes from universal truth based in experience and truths known to the mediators of this discourse grandparents, parents and other elders or peers. Societal discourse defines the hetero relationship as the mainstay of society. The authority in societal discourse stems from the laws and regulations that control relationship practices.

Global and EU governance for sustainable forest management with special reference to capacity building in Ethiopia and Southern Sudan

The purpose of this study was to produce information on and practical recommendations for informed decision-making on and capacity building for sustainable forest management (SFM) and good forest governance. This was done within the overall global framework for sustainable development with special emphasis on the EU and African frameworks and on Southern Sudan and Ethiopia in particular. The case studies on Southern Sudan and Ethiopia focused on local, national and regional issues. Moreover, this study attempted to provide both theoretical and practical new insight. The aim was to build an overall theoretical framework and to study its key contents and main implications for SFM and good forest governance at all administration levels, for providing new tools for capacity building in natural resources management. The theoretical framework and research approach were based on the original research problem and the general and specific aims of the study. The key elements of the framework encompass sustainable development, global and EU governance, sustainable forest management (SFM), good forest governance, as well as international and EU law. The selected research approach comprised matrix-based assessment of international, regional (EU and Africa) and national (Southern Sudan and Ethiopia) policy and legal documents. The specific case study on Southern Sudan also involved interviews and group discussions with local community members and government officials. As a whole, this study attempted to link the global, regional, national and local levels in forest-sector development and especially to analyse how the international policy development in environmental and forestry issues is reflected in field-level progress towards SFM and good forest governance, for the specific cases of Southern Sudan and Ethiopia. The results on Southern Sudan focused on the existing situation and perceived needs in capacity building for SFM and good forest governance at all administration levels. Specifically, the results of the case study on Southern Sudan presented the current situation in selected villages in the northern parts of Renk County in Upper Nile State, and the implications of Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) and of the new forest policy framework for capacity building actions. The results on Ethiopia focused on training, extension, research, education and new curriculum development within higher education institutions and particularly at the Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources (WGCF-NR), which administratively lies under Hawassa University. The results suggest that, for both cases studies, informed decision-making on and capacity building for SFM and good forest governance require comprehensive, long-term, cross-sectoral, coherent and consistent approaches within the dynamic and evolving overall global framework, including its multiple inter-linked levels. The specific priority development and focus areas comprised the establishment of SFM and good forest governance in accordance with the overall sustainable development priorities and with more focus on the international trade in forest products that are derived from sustainable and legal sources with an emphasis on effective forest law enforcement and governance at all levels. In Upper Nile State in Southern Sudan there were positive development signals such as the will of the local people to plant more multipurpose trees on farmlands and range lands as well as the recognition of the importance of forests and trees for sustainable rural development where food security is a key element. In addition, it was evident that the local communities studied in Southern Sudan also wanted to establish good governance systems through partnerships with all actors and through increased local responsibilities. The results also suggest that the implementation of MEAs at the local level in Southern Sudan requires mutually supportive and coherent approaches within the agreements as well as significantly more resources and financial and technical assistance for capacity building, training and extension. Finally, the findings confirm the importance of full utilization of the existing local governance and management systems and their traditional and customary knowledge and practices, and of new development partnerships with full participation of all stakeholders. The planned new forest law for Southern Sudan, based on an already existing new forest policy, is expected to recognize the roles of local-level actors, and it would thus obviously facilitate the achieving of sustainable forest management.

Kolmas sektori maaseutukunnissa

Tämän tutkimuksen tarkoituksena on hahmottaa, millaisena toimijana kolmas sektori eli järjestöt nähdään maaseutumaisissa kunnissa nyt, kun kunta- ja palvelurakenne on muuttumassa ja väestö ikääntymässä. Tutkimuksen perusteella maaseutukunnat odottavat kolmannelta sektorilta ja järjestöiltä panosta kaikkein eniten sosiaalisten verkostojen, niitä vahvistavan ihmisten kanssakäymisen ja yhteisöllisyyden vahvistajana. Erilaisten tapahtumien, kulttuuri-, liikunta-, nuoriso-, harrastus- ja vapaa-ajan toiminnan järjestäminen, ympäristönhoito, perinteen ja historian tallentaminen sekä asukas- ja kylätoiminnan ylläpitäminen ovat maaseutukunnissa toimivien järjestöjen vahvaa toimintakenttää. Tällaisen perinteisen järjestötoiminnan myös taloudellisen merkityksen nähdään korostuvan väestön terveyden ja toimintakyvyn eteen tehtävän ennaltaehkäisevän työn tarpeen kasvaessa. Toinen tutkimuksessa vahvasti esille noussut kolmannen sektorin toiminnan vahvuus liittyy järjestöjen toiminnan ihmisläheisyyteen ja inhimillisyyteen. Kuntakoon kasvaessa ja palvelutuotannon järjestelmien monimutkaistuessa monet tutut arkiset tavat hoitaa asioita menevät uusiksi. Varsinkin ikääntyville nämä muutokset ovat suuria ja aiheuttavat inhimillistä hätää, pelkoja ja kasvavaa yksinäisyyttä. Järjestöissä tämä avun tarve nähdään usein läheltä, ja ne ryhtyvät toimimaan avun ja palvelujen järjestämiseksi. Järjestöjen koetaan toimivan inhimillisesti, lähellä ihmisiä, helposti lähestyttävänä, tutuin kasvoin, kuuntelevin korvin, todellisiin tarpeisiin vastaten. Ajankohtainen poliittinen puhe tuo kolmannen sektorin esille nimenomaan palvelujen tuottajana. Järjestöt ovat myös monissa maaseutukunnissa paikallisesti merkittäviä palvelujen tuottajia ja työllistäjiä. Tutkimuksessa tuli kuitenkin selvästi esille se, ettei kolmannen sektorin palveluntuottajaroolin vahvistumista nähdä varsinkaan harvaan asutun maaseudun pienissä kunnissa kovin realistisena. Järjestöjen roolin ja tehtävien kasvua palvelujen tuottajana jarruttaa erityisesti rahoituksen epävarmuus sekä järjestöväen ikääntyminen ja aktiivisten toimijoiden vähäinen määrä. Kolmas sektori nähtiin varsinkin maaseutukunnissa tehdyissä haastatteluissa vapaaehtoistyön paikkana. Tämä työn järjestämisen periaate kolmatta sektoria määrittävänä tekijänä tuli esille huomattavasti useammin kuin esimerkiksi se, tavoitellaanko toiminnalla voittoa vai ei. On helppo ymmärtää, että kolmas sektori pyritään hahmottamaan vapaaehtoistyön paikaksi, varsinkin kun palvelujen tuottamisen rahoitus on sekä kunnissa että järjestöissä muodostumassa entistä vaikeammaksi kysymykseksi. Siihen, tehdäänkö työ järjestöissä palkattuna työnä vai vapaaehtoistyönä, sisältyy myös yksi kolmatta sektoria koskevan poliittisen keskustelun sokeista pisteistä. Keskustelussa ei ole edetty vielä siihen asti, että puhuttaisiin niistä rajoista, mitä maaseudun yhdistyksiltä ja niissä vapaaehtoiselta pohjalta toimivilta ihmisiltä voidaan ylipäätään edellyttää. Tämän tutkimuksen perusteella voidaan todeta, että mikäli kolmannen sektorin odotetaan osallistuvan sellaisten palvelujen tuottamiseen, jotka edellyttävät sitoutumista, säännöllisyyttä ja pitkäjänteisyyttä, ei tällaisia tehtäviä voida edellyttää hoidettavaksi järjestöissä vapaaehtoisvoimin, ilman korvausta. Tällaisten tehtävien hoitamiseen tarvitaan palkattuja työntekijöitä myös järjestöissä. Tarkasteltaessa kolmannen sektorin roolin ja tehtävien muuttumista maaseutumaisissa kunnissa ja peilattaessa sitä kuntien kasvaviin haasteisiin palvelujen järjestäjänä huomio keskittyy väistämättä ikääntyvän väestön tuki-, hoiva- ja hoitopalvelujen kysynnän kasvuun. Kolmannen sektorin kannalta keskeinen kysymys on, kuka tuottaa ja rahoittaa tulevaisuudessa nuorisopalvelut, liikuntapalvelut, kulttuuripalvelut, vapaa-ajan palvelut, virkistys- ja harrastustoimintaa tai ne välttämättömät tuki- ja hoivapalvelut, joihin kunnilla ei ole varaa. Suomessa on sellaisia alueita ja sellaisia palveluja, joissa julkiset palvelut eivät riitä ja yritysmäiselle palvelutuotannolle ei ole edellytyksiä. Järjestöjen palvelutoimintaa syntyy usein juuri tällaisiin tilanteisiin ja sinne, missä taloudellista voittoa tavoittelevia yrityksiä ei ole, joko toiminnan matalan tuottavuuden, pitkien välimatkojen ja harvan asutuksen aiheuttamien korkeampien tuotantokustannusten tai asiakkaiden alhaisen maksukyvyn takia. Ongelmallista on, ettei näitä maaseudun olosuhteita ja palvelumarkkinoiden erityispiirteitä ole otettu huomioon tuotaessa ja sovellettaessa EU-lähtöistä valtiontuki- ja kilpailulainsäädäntöä kansalliseen lainsäädäntöömme. Tämän tutkimuksen perusteella voidaan todeta, että Suomessa on alueita ja palveluja, joissa kansalaisten perusoikeuksien ja yhdenvertaisuuden toteutuminen on kyseenalaista, jos näitä maaseudun olosuhdetekijöitä ei huomioida esimerkiksi valtiontukea koskevissa säädöksissä ja palvelujen tuottamiseen ei ohjata julkista tukea. Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan niitä määritelmiä ja rajapintoja, jotka liittyvät yritystoimintaan ja järjestötoimintaan, elinkeinotoimintaan ja yleishyödylliseen toimintaan, yleishyödyllisiin ja julkisiin palveluihin, taloudellisiin ja ei-taloudellisiin palveluihin, kuntien lakisääteisiin ja ei-lakisääteisiin tehtäviin sekä vapaaehtoistyöhön ja palkattuun ammattityöhön. Tutkimuksessa kysytään, miksi palveluja tuottavien järjestöjen ja yritysten välisen kilpailuneutraliteetin tulkinnoissa ja tätä koskevissa säädöksissä ollaan oltu Suomessa niin tarkkoja ja miksi aihe on noussut niin keskeiseksi keskusteltaessa järjestöjen roolista palvelujen tuottajana. Maaseudun pitkien etäisyyksien ja pienten asiakasmäärien palvelumarkkinoilla kilpailua suurempi ongelma on pikemminkin palvelutuottajien vähäinen määrä tai se, ettei tuottajia ja kilpailua ole lainkaan. Aiheellista on myös kysyä, mistä yritykset ja järjestöt kilpailevat, onko niiden tuottamien palvelujen sisältö sama, onko asiakasryhmä sama tai miten palvelujen tuottamiseen liittyvät laajemmat yhteiskunnalliset ja sosiaaliset tekijät tulee ottaa huomioon todellista kilpailutilannetta arvioitaessa. Tutkimus vahvistaa tarvetta keskustella ja tehdä poliittiset linjaukset siitä, miten Suomessa suhtaudutaan sellaisiin organisaatioihin, joiden lähtökohtana on taloudellisen voiton tavoittelun asemesta yhteiskunnallisen ongelman ratkaiseminen tai tietyn väestöryhmän, kuten lasten, vanhusten tai vammaisten tarpeisiin vastaaminen. Euroopan parlamentin tätä yhteisötaloutta koskeva päätös vuodelta 2009 velvoittaa jäsenmaat ottamaan omassa lainsäädännössään huomioon tämäntyyppisen sosiaaliset ja taloudelliset näkökohdat yhdistävän toiminnan.

Kansainväliset sanktiot – kauniita sanoja vai harkittuja tekoja? Miksi kansainväliset sanktiot eivät toimi - esimerkkimaina Rhodesia, Etelä-Afrikka ja Zimbabwe.

Tutkin Pro Gradu – tutkielmassani kansainvälisen yhteisön toimeenpanemien sanktioiden ongelmallisuutta, niiden toimivuuden näkökulmasta. Aiempien tapausten valossa, sanktioiden suurimpana kärsijänä on usein nähty olevan siviiliväestö. Sanktioista huolimatta ne henkilöt ja ryhmät joiden katsotaan ollen vastuussa tilanteesta, ovat kuitenkin kyenneet jatkamaan toimintaansa. Sanktio-keskustelua onkin jakanut suhtautuminen sanktioiden hyödyllisyyteen, ennen kaikkea siihen miksi niitä käytetään kun ne eivät toimi. Pyrin työlläni osallistumaan kyseiseen keskusteluun kansainvälisten suhteiden tutkimuksen näkökulmasta. Aikaisemmin akateemista keskustelua on käyty pitkälti oikeudellisesta sekä taloudellisesta näkökulmasta. Työ on teoriasidonnainen tutkimus, jossa vertailevan tapaustutkimuksen keinoin haetaan teorioista tukea esimerkkitapausten käsittelyyn sekä johtopäätöksien tulkintaan. Tutkimuskysymystä lähestytään ensiksi aihepiirin teoreettisen sisällön esittelyllä, jonka jälkeen sitä sovelletaan kolmeen esimerkkitapaukseen. Esimerkkitapaukset ovat Rhodesia, Etelä-Afrikka ja Zimbabwe. Maat on valittu niiden sanktioihin johtaneiden olosuhteiden samankaltaisuuden vuoksi. Zimbabwe on lisäksi esimerkki sanktioissa ja niiden käytössä tapahtuneesta muutoksesta. Muutos on ollut siirtyminen kokonaisvaltaisista sanktioista kohdennettuihin sanktioihin. Teoreettisena viitekehyksenä työssä on toimijoiden rationaalinen toiminta, jonka lähtökohtana ovat heidät omat intressit. Kyseinen toiminta myötävaikuttaa osaltaan sanktioiden toimimattomuuteen, toimijoiden suhteuttaessa aina oman toimintansa muiden toimintaan. Sanktiokeskustelun sijoittumista tieteellisessä keskustelussa selvennän regiimiteorian avulla. Sanktioiden eri osapuolten toimintaa pyrin vuorostaan tuomaan esille rationaalisen valinnan teorian, eritoten peliteorian, avulla. Mainitun lisäksi tuon esille myös poliittisen päätöksenteon epävarmuuden, sekä sen vaikutukset osapuolten toimintamalleihin. Hypoteesina tutkimukselle on, että sanktioita lähettävien maiden keskinäisen yhteistyön heikkous sekä niiden omat kansalliset intressit vaikeuttavat sanktioiden toimintaa. Lähteinä työssä on käytetty julkisia lähteitä, jotka käsittelevät aihepiirin yleistä sekä teoreettista keskustelua. Esimerkkitapauksissa on käytetty myös julkisia lähteitä, sekä aikalaiskirjoituksia. Viimeksi mainitun taustalla on kahden esimerkkitapauksen, Rhodesian ja Etelä-Afrikan, historiallinen näkökulma. Kolmen esimerkkitapauksen kautta, tutkielmassani vahvistuu siinä esitetty hypoteesi. Tämän mukaan sanktioiden toimintaa vaikeuttavat sanktiota lähettävien maiden keskinäisen yhteistyön puute sekä niiden kansalliset intressit. Yhtä lailla sanktioitavat maat ovat sanktioprosessien hitaudesta johtuen kyenneet ennakoimaan ja varautumaan tuleviin muutoksiin. Esimerkkitapauksista Rhodesian ja Etelä-Afrikan kohdalla halutun muutoksen taustalla voidaan katsoa olleen pääasiallisesti muut tekijät kuin sanktiot. Zimbabwen osalta voidaan vuorostaan todeta, että siinä missä kokonaisvaltaiset sanktiot eivät toimineet Etelä-Afrikan ja Rhodesian tapauksissa halutulla tavalla, kohdennetut sanktiot ovat olleet yhtä lailla ongelmallisia. Esimerkkitapausten tuloksista ei voida vetää vedenpitäviä johtopäätöksiä joilla kyettäisiin arvioimaan tai ennustamaan sanktioiden toimivuutta kokonaisvaltaisemmin. Syynä on kansainvälisten sanktio-tapausten yksilöllisyys sekä sanktioiden käytön kiistanalaisuus kansainvälisessä politiikassa.

Taajuushuutokaupan tehokkuus - Toteutuminen Suomen ja Ruotsin 2,6 GHz:n huutokaupoissa

Tutkielmassa arvioidaan taajuushuutokauppojen taloudellista tehokkuutta. Tutkielmassa tarkastellaan erityisesti huutokaupan allokatiivista tehokkuutta ja sen toteutumista kahdessa huutokauppatapauksessa. Työn metodeina on historiallinen tarkastelu taajuushuutokauppojen kehityshistoriasta, toimialatarkastelu teletoimialasta, peliteoreettinen analyysi monen kohteen huutokaupan taloudellisesta tehokkuudesta sekä huutokaupassa asetettujen huutojen suuruuksien sekä määrien analysointi Suomen ja Ruotsin 2,6 GHz:n huutokauppojen osalta. Historiallisen tarkastelun tuloksena esitetään, että huutokaupat ovat taloudellisesti tehokkaampi menetelmä kuin muut taajuusjakomenetelmät: arpajaiset, hallinnollinen arviointi tai ns. ”first come first serve” –menetelmä. Matemaattisen analyysin avulla määritellään tarkasti huutokaupan tehokkuus monen kohteen huutokaupassa ja miten huutokauppamekanismilla voidaan ohjata huutokauppa tehokkaaseen lopputulemaan. 2,6 GHz:n Suomen ja Ruotsin huutokauppojen osalta johtopäätöksinä esitetään, että Ruotsin huutokaupassa todennäköisesti saavutettiin tehokas lopputulema. Suomen huutokaupan osalta esitetään, että huutokaupan taloudelliset mekanismit eivät välttämättä ohjanneet huutokauppaa tehokkaaseen lopputulemaan. Suurimpana syynä Suomen huutokaupan mahdollisesti tehottomaan lopputulemaan voitaneen pitää huutokaupassa ilmennyttä, osittain mekanismista johtunutta, vähäistä kysyntää.

Global processes, local strategies : migration of educated Dominicans.

The aim of this thesis is to examine migration of educated Dominicans in light of global processes. Current global developments have resulted in increasingly global movements of people, yet people tend to come from certain places in large numbers rather than others. At the same time, international migration is increasingly selective, which shows in the disproportional number of educated migrants. This study discovers individual and societal motivations that explain why young educated Dominicans decide to migrate and return. The theoretical framework of this thesis underlines that migration is a dynamic process rooted in other global developments. Migratory movements should be seen as a result of interacting macro- and microstructures, which are linked by a number of intermediate mechanisms, meso-structures. The way individuals perceive opportunity structures concretises the way global developments mediate to the micro-level. The case of the Dominican Republic shows that there is a diversity of local responses to the world system, as Dominicans have produced their own unique historical responses to global changes. The thesis explains that Dominican migration is importantly conditioned by socioeconomic and educational background. Migration is more accessible for the educated middle class, because of the availability of better resources. Educated migrants also seem less likely to rely on networks to organize their migrations. The role of networks in migration differs by socioeconomic background on the one hand, and by the specific connections each individual has to current and previous migrants on the other hand. The personal and cultural values of the migrant are also pivotal. The central argument of this thesis is that a veritable culture of migration has evolved in the Dominican Republic. The actual economic, political and social circumstances have led many Dominicans to believe that there are better opportunities elsewhere. The globalisation of certain expectations on the one hand, and the development of the specifically Dominican feeling of ‘externalism’ on the other, have for their part given rise to the Dominican culture of migration. The study also suggests that the current Dominican development model encourages migration. Besides global structures, local structures are found to ve pivotal in determining how global processes are materialised in a specific place. The research for this thesis was conducted by using qualitative methodology. The focus of this thesis was on thematic interviews that reveal the subject’s point of view and give a fuller understanding of migration and mobility of the educated. The data was mainly collected during a field research phase in Santo Domingo, the Dominican Republic in December 2009 and January 2010. The principal material consists of ten thematic interviews held with educated Dominican current or former migrants. Four expert interviews, relevant empirical data, theoretical literature and newspaper articles were also comprehensively used.

Sterol-binding proteins in late endosomes : Regulation of endosome motility and lipid metabolism

Despite its bad reputation in the mass media, cholesterol is an indispensable constituent of cellular membranes and vertebrate life. It is, however, also potentially lethal as it may accumulate in the arterial intima causing atherosclerosis or elsewhere in the body due to inherited conditions. Studying cholesterol in cells, and research on how the cell biology of cholesterol affects on system level is essential for a better understanding of the disease states associated with cholesterol and for the development of new therapies for these conditions. On its way to the cell, exogenous cholesterol traverses through endosomes, transport vesicles involved in internalizing material to cells, and needs to be transported out of this compartment. This endosomal pool of cholesterol is important for understanding both the common disorders of metabolism and the more rare hereditary disorders of cholesterol metabolism. The study of cholesterol in cells has been hampered by the lack of bright fluorescent sterol analogs that would resemble cholesterol enough to be used in cellular studies. In the first study of my thesis, we present a new sterol analog, Boron-Dipyrromethene (BODIPY)-cholesterol for visualizing sterols in living cells and organism. This fluorescent cholesterol derivative is shown to behave similarly to cholesterol both by atomic scale computer simulations and biochemical experiments. We characterize its localization inside different types of living cells and show that it can be used to study sterol trafficking in living organisms. Two sterol binding proteins associated with the endosomal membrane; the Niemann-Pick type C disease protein 1 (NPC1) and the Oxysterol Binding Protein Related Protein 1 (ORP1) are the subjects of the rest of this study. Sensing cholesterol on endosomes, transporting lipids away from this compartment and the effects these lipids play on cellular metabolism are considered. In the second study we characterize how the NPC1 protein affects lipid metabolism. We show that this cholesterol binding protein affects synthesis of triglycerides and that genetic polymorphisms or a genetic defect in the NPC1 gene affect triglyceride on the whole body level. These effects take place via regulation of carbon fluxes to different lipid classes in cells. In the third part we characterize the effects of another endosomal sterol binding protein, ORP1L on the function and motility of endosomes. Specifically we elucidate how a mutation in the ability of ORP1L to bind sterols affects its behavior in cells, and how a change in ORP1L levels in cells affects the localization, degradative capacity and motility of endosomes. In addition we show that ORP1L manipulations affect cholesterol balance also in macrophages, a cell type important for the development of atherosclerosis.