Régimen jurídico de las lenguas y reconocimiento de la diversidad lingüística en el Tratado por el que se establece una Constitución para Europa

The territory of the European Union is made up of a rich and wide-ranging universe of languages, which is not circumscribed to the «State languages». The existence of multilingualism is one of Europe’s defining characteristics and it should remain so in the constantly evolving model of Europe’s political structure. Nonetheless, until now, the official use of languages has been limited to the «State languages» and has been based on a concept of state monolingualism that has led to a first level of hierarchization among the languages of Europe. This has affected the very concept of European language diversity. The draft of the treaty establishing a European Constitution contains various language-related references that can be grouped in two major categories: on the one hand, those references having to do the constitutional status of languages, and on the other, those regarding the recognition of European language diversity. Both issues are dealt with in this article. In analyzing the legal regime governing languages set forth in the draft of the constitutional treaty, we note that the draft is not based on the concept of the official status of languages. The language regulation contained in the draft of the constitutional treaty is limited in character. The constitutional language regime is based on the concept of Constitutional languages but the official status of languages is not governed by this rule. The European Constitution merely enunciates rights governing language use for European citizens vis-à-vis the languages of the Constitution and refers the regulation of the official status of languages to the Council, which is empowered to set and modify that status by unanimous decision. Because of its broad scope, this constitutes a regulatory reservation. In the final phase of the negotiation process a second level of constitutional recognition of languages would be introduced, linked to those that are official languages in the member states (Catalan, Basque, Galician, etc.). These languages, however, would be excluded from the right to petition; they would constitute a tertium genus, an intermediate category between the lan guages benefiting from the language rights recognized under the Constitution and those other languages for which no status is recognized in the European institutional context. The legal functionality of this second, intermediate category will depend on the development of standards, i.e., it will depend on the entrée provided such languages in future reforms of the institutional language regime. In a later section, the article reflects on European Union language policy with regard to regional or minority languages, concluding that the Union has not acted in accordance with defined language policy guidelines when it has been confronted, in the exercise of its powers, with regional or minority languages (or domestic legislation having to do with language demands). The Court of Justice has endeavoured to resolve on a case by case basis the conflicts raised between community freedoms and the normative measures that protect languages. Thus, using case law, the Court has set certain language boundaries for community freedoms. The article concludes by reflecting on the legal scope of the recognition of European language diversity referred to in Article II-82 of the European Constitution and the possible measures to implement the precept that might constitute the definition of a true European language policy on regional or minority languages. Such a policy has yet to be defined.

La inseparabilidad y el grado de adaptación como determinantes de la internacionalización de las empresas de servicios

[ES] La mayor parte de enfoques teóricos de internacionalización han surgido en el marco del sector industrial y, por tanto, algunas explicaciones podrían no ser generalizables al sector servicios en su globalidad. Por ello, las características sectoriales deben ser tenidas en cuenta en el análisis de los modos de entrada de las empresas de servicios, ya que es posible encontrar patrones de comportamiento muy diferentes no sólo con respecto a las empresas industriales sino también entre las propias empresas de servicios.

Polilaktida oinarri duten 3D zelula-euskarri (scaffold) polimeriko biodegradagarrien diseinu, fabrikazio eta propietateak

[EU]Hiru dimentsioko inprimaketa etorkizun handiko teknologia bezala azaltzen zaigu gaur egun. Esate baterako, biomedikuntza arloan aukera berritzaileak ekar ditzake, baina baita hezkuntza, heziketa eta ikerketa munduetan ere. Teknologia berri honen abantailarik nagusiena prototipatze azkarrean datza, eta honi esker, mikro- eta makro- egitura definituak dituzten objektuak diseinatu eta fabrikatu daitezke modu lehiakorrean. Lan honen helburua 3D inprimagailu baten bitartez inprimaturiko polimero biobateragarri eta biodegradagarrietan oinarrituriko ereduen garapen eta fabrikazioan datza. Hala ere, lehenik eta behin, lehengaiak bai fisikoki eta bai termikoki karakterizatu behar dira, ondoren, 3D inprimagailuaren parametroen arteko erlazioa ezarri, eta azkenik, produktu finalaren egitura propietateak eta kalitatea aztertu. Aipaturiko lana aurrera eramateko erabili den materiala polilaktida (PLA) izan da, zeinen erabilera oso zabaldua dagoen medikuntza arloan inplante (torloju, iltze, plaka eta abar) moduan eta ehun ingeniaritzaren munduan.

Adaburuaren eta orbelaren euri interzepzioa haritzean (Quercus robur) eta intsinis pinuan (Pinus radiata)

Zuhaitz adaburuaren interzepzioak oihanpera prezipitazio osoaren frakzio bat soilik pasatzea eragiten du, gainerakoa lurrunketaz galtzen baita. Oihanpera pasatzen den ur horren parte bat ere lurzoruko orbelak interzeptatzen du. Espezie arteko konparaketa bat egiteko asmoz, adaburuaren eta orbelaren euri interzepzioa neurtu zen haritzean (Quercus robur) eta pinuan (Pinus radiata), sei euriteetako datuak aintzat hartuz (hiru neguan eta beste hiru udaberrian, haritzak hostoak zituenean). Horrez gain, laborategian bi orbel moten ur-erretentzio ahalmen maximoa (S) neurtu zen. Adaburuaren interzepzioa % 37koa izan zen haritzean eta % 24koa pinuan. Haritzean interzepzioa handiagoa izan zen udaberrian neguan baino, pinuan berdina izan zen bitartean. Azken honetan Hosto Azalera Indizearen (Leaf Area Index, LAI) balio altuago batek interzepzio altuagoa eragin zuen, haritzean erlazio hori behatu ez zelarik neurturiko LAI balioak homogeneoegiak zirelako seguruenik. Orbelaren interzepzioak prezipitazio osoaren % 2,1 eta % 1,5 suposatu zuen haritzean eta pinuan hurrenez hurren. Orbelaren gain eroritako ur kantitatea (throughfall) handitzean, interzepzioa handitu zen, maximo batera heldu arte (2,5 mm kg-1 m2-koa haritzean eta 1,8 mm kg-1 m2-koa pinuan). Adaburu motak, berriz, ez zuen eragin esangarririk izan, haritz azpian, pinu azpian eta klaroetan orbelak antzeko interzepzioa aurkeztu zuelarik. Ur-erretentzio ahalmen maximoa haritzean handiagoa izan zen, 4,7 eta 5,6 mm kg-1 m2 artekoa pinuaren 2,8 eta 3,1 mm kg-1 m2 arteko balioen aurrean. Pinuaren balio horiek antzekoak izan ziren orbel geruzaren sakonera edozein zela ere, baina haritzean, orbel sakonera handiagoarekin balio baxuagoak lortu ziren. Bi espezieen artean behaturiko ezberdintasunek iradokitzen dute harizti naturalak pinu landaketez ordezkatzeak ziklo hidrologikoa aldaraz dezakeela.

Poly(lactic acid)-based bio-blends and nanocomposites

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