21 resultados para equilibrio perfecto en subjuegos

em Archivo Digital para la Docencia y la Investigación - Repositorio Institucional de la Universidad del País Vasco


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Para cualquier alumno de Ciencias Sociales que esté interesado en saber analizar juegos en los que existe interacción estratégica entre los jugadores. Contenido: Introducción, Conceptos Básicos, Juegos simultáneos, Ejercicios de autoevaluación, el equilibrio de Nash, problemas del equilibrio de Nash, algunos resultados de interés, algunas aplicaciones del equilibrio de Nash, Ejercicios de autoevaluación, Las estrategias Maximin, las estrategias mixtas, Ejercicios de autoevaluación, el dilema del prisionero, Ejercicios de autoevaluación, Juegos sucesivos o secuenciales, Ejercicios de autoevaluación, paso de la forma extensiva a la normal, Ejercicios de autoevaluación, los juegos repetidos, Ejercicios de autoevaluación, Ejercicio de repaso, solución a los Ejercicios de autoevaluación, respuesta al ejercicio de repaso, Ejercicios, Apéndice: Aplicaciones Económicas, Bibliografía.

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Para cualquier alumno de la Licenciatura en Economía o de la Licenciatura en Administración y Dirección de Empresase que esté interesado en analizar los problemas de coordinar y motivar a los miembros de una organización. Contenido: Conceptos de Equilibrio: Equilibrio de Nash, Equilibrio Perfecto en Subjuegos, Solución Negociadora de Nash. Modelos de Oligopolio. Regulación de los mercados por el gobierno. Incentivos a los gestores: motivos de eficiencia y estratégicos. Incentivos a los trabajadores: negociación del salario. Incentivos de los gobiernos a privatizar las empresas públicas. Incentivos para proteger el medio ambiente. La Economía de los Costes de Transacción

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Las elecciones se acercan y los partidos políticos están manos a la obra en la búsqueda del candidato perfecto. En este sentido, en la presente investigación se ha pretendido ver si la responsabilidad social es un atributo que concede la suficiente ventaja diferenciadora como para ganar unas elecciones. Tras analizar las respuestas de los encuestados, se ha descubierto que el comportamiento de los candidatos es un factor influyente en las elecciones. El candidato socialmente responsable no tendrá una imagen mucho más positiva, aunque mejorará otros atributos del representante como la credibilidad y la honestidad, cualidades muy valoradas en épocas de gran desafección política. En resumen, las prácticas sociales y medioambientales son esenciales en el candidato modelo y deberán ser analizadas y tomadas en cuenta en el marketing político al igual que la imagen del candidato o la campaña

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[EN] This PhD work started in March 2010 with the support of the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU) under the program named “Formación de Personal Investigador” at the Chemical and Environmental Engineering Department in the Faculty of Engineering of Bilbao. The major part of the Thesis work was carried out in the mentioned department, as a member of the Sustainable Process Engineering (SuPrEn) research group. In addition, this PhD Thesis includes the research work developed during a period of 6 months at the Institut für Mikrotechnik Mainz GmbH, IMM, in Germany. During the four years of the Thesis, conventional and microreactor systems were tested for several feedstocks renewable and non-renewable, gases and liquids through several reforming processes in order to produce hydrogen. For this purpose, new catalytic formulations which showed high activity, selectivity and stability were design. As a consequence, the PhD work performed allowed the publication of seven scientific articles in peer-reviewed journals. This PhD Thesis is divided into the following six chapters described below. The opportunity of this work is established on the basis of the transition period needed for moving from a petroleum based energy system to a renewable based new one. Consequently, the present global energy scenario was detailed in Chapter 1, and the role of hydrogen as a real alternative in the future energy system was justified based on several outlooks. Therefore, renewable and non-renewable hydrogen production routes were presented, explaining the corresponding benefits and drawbacks. Then, the raw materials used in this Thesis work were described and the most important issues regarding the processes and the characteristics of the catalytic formulations were explained. The introduction chapter finishes by introducing the concepts of decentralized production and process intensification with the use of microreactors. In addition, a small description of these innovative reaction systems and the benefits that entailed their use were also mentioned. In Chapter 2 the main objectives of this Thesis work are summarized. The development of advanced reaction systems for hydrogen rich mixtures production is the main objective. In addition, the use and comparison between two different reaction systems, (fixed bed reactor (FBR) and microreactor), the processing of renewable raw materials, the development of new, active, selective and stable catalytic formulations, and the optimization of the operating conditions were also established as additional partial objectives. Methane and natural gas (NG) steam reforming experimental results obtained when operated with microreactor and FBR systems are presented in Chapter 3. For these experiments nickel-based (Ni/Al2O3 and Ni/MgO) and noble metal-based (Pd/Al2O3 and Pt/Al2O3) catalysts were prepared by wet impregnation and their catalytic activity was measured at several temperatures, from 973 to 1073 K, different S/C ratios, from 1.0 to 2.0, and atmospheric pressure. The Weight Hourly Space Velocity (WHSV) was maintained constant in order to compare the catalytic activity in both reaction systems. The results obtained showed a better performance of the catalysts operating in microreactors. The Ni/MgO catalyst reached the highest hydrogen production yield at 1073 K and steam-to-carbon ratio (S/C) of 1.5 under Steam methane Reforming (SMR) conditions. In addition, this catalyst also showed good activity and stability under NG reforming at S/C=1.0 and 2.0. The Ni/Al2O3 catalyst also showed high activity and good stability and it was the catalyst reaching the highest methane conversion (72.9 %) and H2out/CH4in ratio (2.4) under SMR conditions at 1073 K and S/C=1.0. However, this catalyst suffered from deactivation when it was tested under NG reforming conditions. Regarding the activity measurements carried out with the noble metal-based catalysts in the microreactor systems, they suffered a very quick deactivation, probably because of the effects attributed to carbon deposition, which was detected by Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). When the FBR was used no catalytic activity was measured with the catalysts under investigation, probably because they were operated at the same WHSV than the microreactors and these WHSVs were too high for FBR system. In Chapter 4 biogas reforming processes were studied. This chapter starts with an introduction explaining the properties of the biogas and the main production routes. Then, the experimental procedure carried out is detailed giving concrete information about the experimental set-up, defining the parameters measured, specifying the characteristics of the reactors used and describing the characterization techniques utilized. Each following section describes the results obtained from activity testing with the different catalysts prepared, which is subsequently summarized: Section 4.3: Biogas reforming processes using γ-Al2O3 based catalysts The activity results obtained by several Ni-based catalysts and a bimetallic Rh-Ni catalyst supported on magnesia or alumina modified with oxides like CeO2 and ZrO2 are presented in this section. In addition, an alumina-based commercial catalyst was tested in order to compare the activity results measured. Four different biogas reforming processes were studied using a FBR: dry reforming (DR), biogas steam reforming (BSR), biogas oxidative reforming (BOR) and tri-reforming (TR). For the BSR process different steam to carbon ratios (S/C) from 1.0 to 3.0, were tested. In the case of BOR process the oxygen-to-methane (O2/CH4) ratio was varied from 0.125 to 0.50. Finally, for TR processes different S/C ratios from 1.0 to 3.0, and O2/CH4 ratios of 0.25 and 0.50 were studied. Then, the catalysts which achieved high activity and stability were impregnated in a microreactor to explore the viability of process intensification. The operation with microreactors was carried out under the best experimental conditions measured in the FBR. In addition, the physicochemical characterization of the fresh and spent catalysts was carried out by Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-AES), N2 physisorption, H2 chemisorption, Temperature Programmed Reduction (TPR), SEM, X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) and X-ray powder Diffraction (XRD). Operating with the FBR, conversions close to the ones predicted by thermodynamic calculations were obtained by most of the catalysts tested. The Rh-Ni/Ce-Al2O3 catalyst obtained the highest hydrogen production yield in DR. In BSR process, the Ni/Ce-Al2O3 catalyst achieved the best activity results operating at S/C=1.0. In the case of BOR process, the Ni/Ce-Zr-Al2O3 catalyst showed the highest reactants conversion values operating at O2/CH4=0.25. Finally, in the TR process the Rh-Ni/Ce-Al2O3 catalyst obtained the best results operating at S/C=1.0 and O2/CH4=0.25. Therefore, these three catalysts were selected to be coated onto microchannels in order to test its performance under BOR and TR processes conditions. Although the operation using microreactors was carried out under considerably higher WHSV, similar conversions and yields as the ones measured in FBR were measured. Furthermore, attending to other measurements like Turnover Frequency (TOF) and Hydrogen Productivity (PROD), the values calculated for the catalysts tested in microreactors were one order of magnitude higher. Thus, due to the low dispersion degree measured by H2-chemisorption, the Ni/Ce-Al2O3 catalyst reached the highest TOF and PROD values. Section 4.4: Biogas reforming processes using Zeolites L based catalysts In this section three type of L zeolites, with different morphology and size, were synthesized and used as catalyst support. Then, for each type of L zeolite three nickel monometallic and their homologous Rh-Ni bimetallic catalysts were prepared by the wetness impregnation method. These catalysts were tested using the FBR under DR process and different conditions of BSR (S/C ratio of 1.0 and 2.0), BOR (O2/CH4 ratio of 0.25 and 0.50) and TR processes (at S/C=1.0 and O2/CH4=0.25). The characterization of these catalysts was also carried out by using the same techniques mentioned in the previous section. Very high methane and carbon dioxide conversion values were measured for almost all the catalysts under investigation. The experimental results evidenced the better catalytic behavior of the bimetallic catalysts as compared to the monometallic ones. Comparing the catalysts behavior with regards to their morphology, for the BSR process the Disc catalysts were the most active ones at the lowest S/C ratio tested. On the contrary, the Cylindrical (30–60 nm) catalysts were more active under BOR conditions at O2/CH4=0.25 and TR processes. By the contrary, the Cylindrical (1–3 µm) catalysts showed the worst activity results for both processes. Section 4.5: Biogas reforming processes using Na+ and Cs+ doped Zeolites LTL based catalysts A method for the synthesis of Linde Type L (LTL) zeolite under microwave-assisted hydrothermal conditions and its behavior as a support for heterogeneously catalyzed hydrogen production is described in this section. Then, rhodium and nickel-based bimetallic catalysts were prepared in order to be tested by DR process and BOR process at O2/CH4=0.25. Moreover, the characterization of the catalysts under investigation was also carried out. Higher activities were achieved by the catalysts prepared from the non-doped zeolites, Rh-Ni/D and Rh-Ni/N, as compared to the ones supported on Na+ and Cs+ exchanged supports. However, the differences between them were not very significant. In addition, the Na+ and Cs+ incorporation affected mainly to the Disc catalysts. Comparing the results obtained by these catalysts with the ones studied in the section 4.4, in general worst results were achieved under DR conditions and almost the same results when operated under BOR conditions. In Chapter 5 the ethylene glycol (EG) as feed for syngas production by steam reforming (SR) and oxidative steam reforming (OSR) was studied by using microchannel reactors. The product composition was determined at a S/C of 4.0, reaction temperatures between 625°C and 725°C, atmospheric pressure and Volume Hourly Space Velocities (VHSV) between 100 and 300 NL/(gcath). This work was divided in two sections. The first one corresponds to the introduction of the main and most promising EG production routes. Then, the new experimental procedure is detailed and the information about the experimental set-up and the measured parameters is described. The characterization was carried out using the same techniques as for the previous chapter. Then, the next sections correspond to the catalytic activity and catalysts characterization results. Section 5.3: xRh-cm and xRh-np catalysts for ethylene glycol reforming Initially, catalysts with different rhodium loading, from 1.0 to 5.0 wt. %, and supported on α-Al2O3 were prepared by two different preparation methods (conventional impregnation and separate nanoparticle synthesis). Then, the catalysts were compared regarding their measured activity and selectivity, as well as the characterization results obtained before and after the activity tests carried out. The samples prepared by a conventional impregnation method showed generally higher activity compared to catalysts prepared from Rh nanoparticles. By-product formation of species such as acetaldehyde, ethane and ethylene was detected, regardless if oxygen was added to the feed or not. Among the catalysts tested, the 2.5Rh-cm catalyst was considered the best one. Section 5.4: 2.5Rh-cm catalyst support modification with CeO2 and La2O3 In this part of the Chapter 5, the catalyst showing the best performance in the previous section, the 2.5Rh-Al2O3 catalyst, was selected in order to be improved. Therefore, new Rh based catalysts were designed using α-Al2O3 and being modified this support with different contents of CeO2 or La2O3 oxides. All the catalysts containing additives showed complete conversion and selectivities close to the equilibrium in both SR and OSR processes. In addition, for these catalysts the concentrations measured for the C2H4, CH4, CH3CHO and C2H6 by-products were very low. Finally, the 2.5Rh-20Ce catalyst was selected according to its catalytic activity and characterization results in order to run a stability test, which lasted more than 115 hours under stable operation. The last chapter, Chapter 6, summarizes the main conclusions achieved throughout this Thesis work. Although very high reactant conversions and rich hydrogen mixtures were obtained using a fixed bed reaction system, the use of microreactors improves the key issues, heat and mass transfer limitations, through which the reforming reactions are intensified. Therefore, they seem to be a very interesting and promising alternative for process intensification and decentralized production for remote application.

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El estudio de los impactos económicos de las políticas de control del cambio climático requiere del uso de modelos adecuados. Este artículo presenta un Modelo Dinámico de Equilibrio General Aplicado tipo Ramsey. El modelo implementa un mercado de permisos de emisión perfecto que garantiza una reducción de emisiones eficiente y efectiva, permitiéndonos calcular los costes económicos mínimos asociados al control de las emisiones de efecto invernadero. Además aprovecha al máximo la disponibilidad de datos existentes en España 1) utilizando una matriz de contabilidad social (o SAM) energética mediante la integración de la información económica de la Tablas Input-Output y la información energética de los Balances Energéticos y 2) considerando todas la emisiones sujetas a control además del CO2. Los MEGAs dinámicos son inéditos en cuanto a su elaboración y aplicación en España y permiten investigar ex-ante los efectos de políticas públicas en el medio y en largo plazo.

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(EN) My project is about the Cournot equilibrium in the electric power market. The differences in this situacion depend on the number of the firms in the market.

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Este volúmen recoge las "IX Jornadas de Historia Local: de los fueros locales a las ordenanzas municipales en Euskal Herria" (Vitoria-Gasteiz, 2006)

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[ES] El objetivo de esta investigación es evaluar la actividad de saltar de un grupo escolar natural de 15 criaturas entre los dos y los cuatro años en el contexto de la Práctica Psicomotriz Aucouturier. La perspectiva teórica adoptada ha sido la teoría psicogenética y dialéctica de Henri Wallon. Según ésta, saltar es un automatismo natural regulado por el aparato funcional del equilibrio que se aprende en la primera infancia. La metodología utilizada ha sido la observacional. El diseño es nomotético, de seguimiento y multidimensional, y el instrumento de observación es el formato de campo "el salto en psicomotricidad durante el tercer año de vida". Los resultados, obtenidos mediante la aplicación prospectiva del análisis secuencial de retardos, informan sobre la adquisición del automatismo o proceso de aprendizaje, sobre el contenido del mismo o manejo del vértigo y sobre su resultante conjunta o tipos básicos de salto en psicomotricidad, sus características y su evolución.

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Los enzimas son piezas fundamentales en el correcto funcionamiento de cualquier sistema biológico. Gracias a su naturaleza proteica y a las estructuras tridimensionales complejas que son capaces de adoptar, estas moléculas actúan como catalizadores de reacciones químicas. L a función de los enz imas es disminuir la energía de activación de la reacción, aumentando de este modo la velocidad de reacción. L o s enzimas no alteran el balance e nergético de las reacciones en que intervienen, ni modifican, por lo tanto, el equilibrio de la reacción . Por este motivo, en las reacciones catalizadas por enzimas se observa una mayor rapidez a la hora de alcanzar el equilibrio. La ciencia que estudia l a velocidad de las reacciones químicas que son catalizadas por enzimas es la cinética enzimática , e n la cual , las moléculas sobre las que actúan los enzimas se denominan sustratos y las moléculas resultantes de la conversión productos. El estudio de la cin ética de un enzima permite explicar los detalles de su mecanismo catalítico, su papel en el metabolismo o incluso cómo se controla su actividad en la célula. Las dos propiedades más importantes a la hora de trabajar con enzimas son: el tiempo que tarda en saturarse con un sustrato en particular y la velocidad máxima de reacción que puede alcanzar. Para el estudio de estas propiedades en el laboratorio se realizan los ensayos enzimáticos. El procedimiento a seguir en estos casos es medir la aparición de un producto o la desaparición de un sustrato frente al tiempo.

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Las aleaciones con memoria de forma, SMA , son materiales que presentan unas propiedades muy interesantes, como son el efecto de memoria de forma y la superlasticidad. El mecanismo responsable de estas propiedades es la transformación martensítica termo - elástica. Esta transformación , es una transformación sólido - sólido reversible de primer orden , la cual se da entre una fase de alta simetría y otra de menor simetría. La fase de mayor simetría se llama " fase austenita" y la de menor si metría " fase martensita". Las aleaciones metam agnéticas con memoria de forma, MSMA, son aleaciones que aúna n, las propiedades que confiere la transformación martensí tica y las propiedades magnétic as. La característica principal de estas aleaciones es que la fase martensita t iene un carácter magnético más débil que el de la fase austenita, y ello propicia que estas presenten efectos magnetocalóricos, efectos magnetocalóricos inversos y magnetorresistencia. En este Trabajo de Fin de Grado se han elaborado un a serie de seis MSMAs basad as en Mn - Ni - Sn, de composición: Mn 49 Ni 42 - x Sn 9 Fe x (x=0,2,3,4,5,6 en % atómico) en las que se ha sustituido Fe por Ni . Los objet ivo s fundamentales de este trabajo ha n sido , la caracterización de la tran sformación estructural, el estudio de la influencia del campo magnético tanto en la transformación estructural como magnética y por último el estudio de la influencia de la composición en la transformación martensítica y magnética. Para llevar a cabo esta labor se han usado varias técnicas experimentales como son la calorimetría diferencial de barr ido, DSC , la magneto metría de muestra vibrante , VSM , EDX para determinar la composición y Rayos - X para determinar la estructura cristalográfica. A tenor de los resultados obtenidos durante el trabajo, se concluye que , la composición juega un papel fundamental en las propiedades de estas aleaciones, pudiéndose distinguir dos grupos, las aleaciones con 4 % o menos de Fe y con más de 4 % de Fe. La aplicación de campo magnético desplaza la tra nsformación hacia temperaturas bajas, determinando sus diagramas de fase. Debido al estado de no equilibrio de los mismos no se puede determinar la variación l a de entrop í a en función del campo magnético. Por último, l a aparición del fenómeno de "kinetic ar rest" y la fase - son determinantes en el comportamiento de este tipo de aleaciones

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Este proyecto se centra en el control de un robot con estabilidad dinámica más concretamente en un robot que responde al conocido modelo del péndulo invertido. Una de las aplicaciones más famosas del péndulo invertido es el Segway. El péndulo invertido del Segway se define solo en un eje, al tener dos ruedas paralelas como soporte. El proyecto general consta de tres partes, poner el robot en equilibrio, el control remoto del robot vía Bluetooth y el uso de los encoders de los motores para manejar el robot. Poner el robot en equilibrio: Esta parte consiste en la lectura e interpretación de los datos que nos ofrece la Unidad de Medición Inercial (IMU) para conseguir que el robot se mantenga horizontalmente en todo momento utilizando un control PID y se ha desarrollado junto al compañero, Anartz Recalde. Las otras dos partes están pensadas con el objetivo de darle más personalidad al proyecto individual de cada uno. Control remoto vía Bluetooth: Con esta parte lo que se pretende es controlar el robot remotamente mediante el Bluetooth y ha sido desarrollada únicamente por mí. Uso de los encoders de los motores para manejar el robot: Esta parte ha sido totalmente desarrollada por Anartz Recalde, y consiste en hacer uso de los encoders de los motores e interpretar los datos que proporcionan para sacar distintos datos como la distancia recorrida o la velocidad. De esta manera, intentará conseguir que el robot en todo momento se mantenga en la misma posición, es decir si alguna fuerza externa al robot hace que el robot se mueva, éste se tiene que situar en la misma posición en la que estaba antes de que se le hubiera ejercido dicha fuerza externa. Por lo tanto, este proyecto consiste en construir un robot balancín, bastante similar a un Segway pero en una escala más pequeña, conseguir que se mantenga en equilibrio y manejarlo por control remoto mediante uso del Bluetooth.