The intergalactic and circumgalactic medium surrounding star-forming galaxies at redshifts 2 < z < 3

We present measurements of the spatial distribution, kinematics, and physical properties of gas in the circumgalactic medium (CGM) of 2.0<z<2.8 UV color-selected galaxies as well as within the 2<z<3 intergalactic medium (IGM). These measurements are derived from Voigt profile decomposition of the full Lyα and Lyβ forest in 15 high-resolution, high signal-to-noise ratio QSO spectra resulting in a catalog of ∼6000 HI absorbers.

Chapter 2 of this thesis focuses on HI surrounding high-z star-forming galaxies drawn from the Keck Baryonic Structure Survey (KBSS). The KBSS is a unique spectroscopic survey of the distant universe designed to explore the details of the connection between galaxies and intergalactic baryons within the same survey volumes. The KBSS combines high-quality background QSO spectroscopy with large densely-sampled galaxy redshift surveys to probe the CGM at scales of ∼50 kpc to a few Mpc. Based on these data, Chapter 2 presents the first quantitative measurements of the distribution, column density, kinematics, and absorber line widths of neutral hydrogen surrounding high-z star-forming galaxies.

Chapter 3 focuses on the thermal properties of the diffuse IGM. This analysis relies on measurements of the ∼6000 absorber line widths to constrain the thermal and turbulent velocities of absorbing "clouds." A positive correlation between the column density of HI and the minimum line width is recovered and implies a temperature-density relation within the low-density IGM for which higher-density regions are hotter, as is predicted by simple theoretical arguments.

Chapter 4 presents new measurements of the opacity of the IGM and CGM to hydrogen-ionizing photons. The chapter begins with a revised measurement of the HI column density distribution based on this new absorption line catalog that, due to the inclusion of high-order Lyman lines, provides the first statistically robust measurement of the frequency of absorbers with HI column densities 14 ≲ log(N_HI/cm^-2) ≲ 17.2. Also presented are the first measurements of the column density distribution of HI within the CGM (50 <d < 300 pkpc) of high-z galaxies. These distributions are used to calculate the total opacity of the IGM and IGM+CGM and to revise previous measurements of the mean free path of hydrogen-ionizing photons within the IGM. This chapter also considers the effect of the surrounding CGM on the transmission of ionizing photons out of the sites of active star-formation and into the IGM.

This thesis concludes with a brief discussion of work in progress focused on understanding the distribution of metals within the CGM of KBSS galaxies. Appendix B discusses my contributions to the MOSFIRE instrumentation project.

Detailed properties of high redshift galaxies

Galaxies evolve throughout the history of the universe from the first star-forming sources, through gas-rich asymmetric structures with rapid star formation rates, to the massive symmetrical stellar systems observed at the present day. Determining the physical processes which drive galaxy formation and evolution is one of the most important questions in observational astrophysics. This thesis presents four projects aimed at improving our understanding of galaxy evolution from detailed measurements of star forming galaxies at high redshift.

We use resolved spectroscopy of gravitationally lensed z ≃ 2 - 3 star forming galaxies to measure their kinematic and star formation properties. The combination of lensing with adaptive optics yields physical resolution of ≃ 100 pc, sufficient to resolve giant Hii regions. We find that ~ 70 % of galaxies in our sample display ordered rotation with high local velocity dispersion indicating turbulent thick disks. The rotating galaxies are gravitationally unstable and are expected to fragment into giant clumps. The size and dynamical mass of giant Hii regions are in agreement with predictions for such clumps indicating that gravitational instability drives the rapid star formation. The remainder of our sample is comprised of ongoing major mergers. Merging galaxies display similar star formation rate, morphology, and local velocity dispersion as isolated sources, but their velocity fields are more chaotic with no coherent rotation.

We measure resolved metallicity in four lensed galaxies at z = 2.0 − 2.4 from optical emission line diagnostics. Three rotating galaxies display radial gradients with higher metallicity at smaller radii, while the fourth is undergoing a merger and has an inverted gradient with lower metallicity at the center. Strong gradients in the rotating galaxies indicate that they are growing inside-out with star formation fueled by accretion of metal-poor gas at large radii. By comparing measured gradients with an appropriate comparison sample at z = 0, we demonstrate that metallicity gradients in isolated galaxies must flatten at later times. The amount of size growth inferred by the gradients is in rough agreement with direct measurements of massive galaxies. We develop a chemical evolution model to interpret these data and conclude that metallicity gradients are established by a gradient in the outflow mass loading factor, combined with radial inflow of metal-enriched gas.

We present the first rest-frame optical spectroscopic survey of a large sample of low-luminosity galaxies at high redshift (L < L*, 1.5 < z < 3.5). This population dominates the star formation density of the universe at high redshifts, yet such galaxies are normally too faint to be studied spectroscopically. We take advantage of strong gravitational lensing magnification to compile observations for a sample of 29 galaxies using modest integration times with the Keck and Palomar telescopes. Balmer emission lines confirm that the sample has a median SFR ∼ 10 M_sun yr^−1 and extends to lower SFR than has been probed by other surveys at similar redshift. We derive the metallicity, dust extinction, SFR, ionization parameter, and dynamical mass from the spectroscopic data, providing the first accurate characterization of the star-forming environment in low-luminosity galaxies at high redshift. For the first time, we directly test the proposal that the relation between galaxy stellar mass, star formation rate, and gas phase metallicity does not evolve. We find lower gas phase metallicity in the high redshift galaxies than in local sources with equivalent stellar mass and star formation rate, arguing against a time-invariant relation. While our result is preliminary and may be biased by measurement errors, this represents an important first measurement that will be further constrained by ongoing analysis of the full data set and by future observations.

We present a study of composite rest-frame ultraviolet spectra of Lyman break galaxies at z = 4 and discuss implications for the distribution of neutral outflowing gas in the circumgalactic medium. In general we find similar spectroscopic trends to those found at z = 3 by earlier surveys. In particular, absorption lines which trace neutral gas are weaker in less evolved galaxies with lower stellar masses, smaller radii, lower luminosity, less dust, and stronger Lyα emission. Typical galaxies are thus expected to have stronger Lyα emission and weaker low-ionization absorption at earlier times, and we indeed find somewhat weaker low-ionization absorption at higher redshifts. In conjunction with earlier results, we argue that the reduced low-ionization absorption is likely caused by lower covering fraction and/or velocity range of outflowing neutral gas at earlier epochs. This result has important implications for the hypothesis that early galaxies were responsible for cosmic reionization. We additionally show that fine structure emission lines are sensitive to the spatial extent of neutral gas, and demonstrate that neutral gas is concentrated at smaller galactocentric radii in higher redshift galaxies.

The results of this thesis present a coherent picture of galaxy evolution at high redshifts 2 ≲ z ≲ 4. Roughly 1/3 of massive star forming galaxies at this period are undergoing major mergers, while the rest are growing inside-out with star formation occurring in gravitationally unstable thick disks. Star formation, stellar mass, and metallicity are limited by outflows which create a circumgalactic medium of metal-enriched material. We conclude by describing some remaining open questions and prospects for improving our understanding of galaxy evolution with future observations of gravitationally lensed galaxies.

Did galaxies reionize the universe?

The epoch of reionization remains one of the last uncharted eras of cosmic history, yet this time is of crucial importance, encompassing the formation of both the first galaxies and the first metals in the universe. In this thesis, I present four related projects that both characterize the abundance and properties of these first galaxies and uses follow-up observations of these galaxies to achieve one of the first observations of the neutral fraction of the intergalactic medium during the heart of the reionization era.

First, we present the results of a spectroscopic survey using the Keck telescopes targeting 6.3 < z < 8.8 star-forming galaxies. We secured observations of 19 candidates, initially selected by applying the Lyman break technique to infrared imaging data from the Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3) onboard the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). This survey builds upon earlier work from Stark et al. (2010, 2011), which showed that star-forming galaxies at 3 < z < 6, when the universe was highly ionized, displayed a significant increase in strong Lyman alpha emission with redshift. Our work uses the LRIS and NIRSPEC instruments to search for Lyman alpha emission in candidates at a greater redshift in the observed near-infrared, in order to discern if this evolution continues, or is quenched by an increase in the neutral fraction of the intergalactic medium. Our spectroscopic observations typically reach a 5-sigma limiting sensitivity of < 50 AA. Despite expecting to detect Lyman alpha at 5-sigma in 7-8 galaxies based on our Monte Carlo simulations, we only achieve secure detections in two of 19 sources. Combining these results with a similar sample of 7 galaxies from Fontana et al. (2010), we determine that these few detections would only occur in < 1% of simulations if the intrinsic distribution was the same as that at z ~ 6. We consider other explanations for this decline, but find the most convincing explanation to be an increase in the neutral fraction of the intergalactic medium. Using theoretical models, we infer a neutral fraction of X_HI ~ 0.44 at z = 7.

Second, we characterize the abundance of star-forming galaxies at z > 6.5 again using WFC3 onboard the HST. This project conducted a detailed search for candidates both in the Hubble Ultra Deep Field as well as a number of additional wider Hubble Space Telescope surveys to construct luminosity functions at both z ~ 7 and 8, reaching 0.65 and 0.25 mag fainter than any previous surveys, respectively. With this increased depth, we achieve some of the most robust constraints on the Schechter function faint end slopes at these redshifts, finding very steep values of alpha_{z~7} = -1.87 +/- 0.18 and alpha_{z~8} = -1.94 +/- 0.23. We discuss these results in the context of cosmic reionization, and show that given reasonable assumptions about the ionizing spectra and escape fraction of ionizing photons, only half the photons needed to maintain reionization are provided by currently observable galaxies at z ~ 7-8. We show that an extension of the luminosity function down to M_{UV} = -13.0, coupled with a low level of star-formation out to higher redshift, can fit all available constraints on the ionization history of the universe.

Third, we investigate the strength of nebular emission in 3 < z < 5 star-forming galaxies. We begin by using the Infrared Array Camera (IRAC) onboard the Spitzer Space Telescope to investigate the strength of H alpha emission in a sample of 3.8 < z < 5.0 spectroscopically confirmed galaxies. We then conduct near-infrared observations of star-forming galaxies at 3 < z < 3.8 to investigate the strength of the [OIII] 4959/5007 and H beta emission lines from the ground using MOSFIRE. In both cases, we uncover near-ubiquitous strong nebular emission, and find excellent agreement between the fluxes derived using the separate methods. For a subset of 9 objects in our MOSFIRE sample that have secure Spitzer IRAC detections, we compare the emission line flux derived from the excess in the K_s band photometry to that derived from direct spectroscopy and find 7 to agree within a factor of 1.6, with only one catastrophic outlier. Finally, for a different subset for which we also have DEIMOS rest-UV spectroscopy, we compare the relative velocities of Lyman alpha and the rest-optical nebular lines which should trace the cites of star-formation. We find a median velocity offset of only v_{Ly alpha} = 149 km/s, significantly less than the 400 km/s observed for star-forming galaxies with weaker Lyman alpha emission at z = 2-3 (Steidel et al. 2010), and show that this decrease can be explained by a decrease in the neutral hydrogen column density covering the galaxy. We discuss how this will imply a lower neutral fraction for a given observed extinction of Lyman alpha when its visibility is used to probe the ionization state of the intergalactic medium.

Finally, we utilize the recent CANDELS wide-field, infra-red photometry over the GOODS-N and S fields to re-analyze the use of Lyman alpha emission to evaluate the neutrality of the intergalactic medium. With this new data, we derive accurate ultraviolet spectral slopes for a sample of 468 3 < z < 6 star-forming galaxies, already observed in the rest-UV with the Keck spectroscopic survey (Stark et al. 2010). We use a Bayesian fitting method which accurately accounts for contamination and obscuration by skylines to derive a relationship between the UV-slope of a galaxy and its intrinsic Lyman alpha equivalent width probability distribution. We then apply this data to spectroscopic surveys during the reionization era, including our own, to accurately interpret the drop in observed Lyman alpha emission. From our most recent such MOSFIRE survey, we also present evidence for the most distant galaxy confirmed through emission line spectroscopy at z = 7.62, as well as a first detection of the CIII]1907/1909 doublet at z > 7.

We conclude the thesis by exploring future prospects and summarizing the results of Robertson et al. (2013). This work synthesizes many of the measurements in this thesis, along with external constraints, to create a model of reionization that fits nearly all available constraints.

Deep near-infrared spectroscopy of high-redshift galaxies: the physical growth of passive systems

The assembly history of massive galaxies is one of the most important aspects of galaxy formation and evolution. Although we have a broad idea of what physical processes govern the early phases of galaxy evolution, there are still many open questions. In this thesis I demonstrate the crucial role that spectroscopy can play in a physical understanding of galaxy evolution. I present deep near-infrared spectroscopy for a sample of high-redshift galaxies, from which I derive important physical properties and their evolution with cosmic time. I take advantage of the recent arrival of efficient near-infrared detectors to target the rest-frame optical spectra of z > 1 galaxies, from which many physical quantities can be derived. After illustrating the applications of near-infrared deep spectroscopy with a study of star-forming galaxies, I focus on the evolution of massive quiescent systems.

Most of this thesis is based on two samples collected at the W. M. Keck Observatory that represent a significant step forward in the spectroscopic study of z > 1 quiescent galaxies. All previous spectroscopic samples at this redshift were either limited to a few objects, or much shallower in terms of depth. Our first sample is composed of 56 quiescent galaxies at 1 < z < 1.6 collected using the upgraded red arm of the Low Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (LRIS). The second consists of 24 deep spectra of 1.5 < z < 2.5 quiescent objects observed with the Multi-Object Spectrometer For Infra-Red Exploration (MOSFIRE). Together, these spectra span the critical epoch 1 < z < 2.5, where most of the red sequence is formed, and where the sizes of quiescent systems are observed to increase significantly.

We measure stellar velocity dispersions and dynamical masses for the largest number of z > 1 quiescent galaxies to date. By assuming that the velocity dispersion of a massive galaxy does not change throughout its lifetime, as suggested by theoretical studies, we match galaxies in the local universe with their high-redshift progenitors. This allows us to derive the physical growth in mass and size experienced by individual systems, which represents a substantial advance over photometric inferences based on the overall galaxy population. We find a significant physical growth among quiescent galaxies over 0 < z < 2.5 and, by comparing the slope of growth in the mass-size plane dlogR_e/dlogM_∗ with the results of numerical simulations, we can constrain the physical process responsible for the evolution. Our results show that the slope of growth becomes steeper at higher redshifts, yet is broadly consistent with minor mergers being the main process by which individual objects evolve in mass and size.

By fitting stellar population models to the observed spectroscopy and photometry we derive reliable ages and other stellar population properties. We show that the addition of the spectroscopic data helps break the degeneracy between age and dust extinction, and yields significantly more robust results compared to fitting models to the photometry alone. We detect a clear relation between size and age, where larger galaxies are younger. Therefore, over time the average size of the quiescent population will increase because of the contribution of large galaxies recently arrived to the red sequence. This effect, called progenitor bias, is different from the physical size growth discussed above, but represents another contribution to the observed difference between the typical sizes of low- and high-redshift quiescent galaxies. By reconstructing the evolution of the red sequence starting at z ∼ 1.25 and using our stellar population histories to infer the past behavior to z ∼ 2, we demonstrate that progenitor bias accounts for only half of the observed growth of the population. The remaining size evolution must be due to physical growth of individual systems, in agreement with our dynamical study.

Finally, we use the stellar population properties to explore the earliest periods which led to the formation of massive quiescent galaxies. We find tentative evidence for two channels of star formation quenching, which suggests the existence of two independent physical mechanisms. We also detect a mass downsizing, where more massive galaxies form at higher redshift, and then evolve passively. By analyzing in depth the star formation history of the brightest object at z > 2 in our sample, we are able to put constraints on the quenching timescale and on the properties of its progenitor.

A consistent picture emerges from our analyses: massive galaxies form at very early epochs, are quenched on short timescales, and then evolve passively. The evolution is passive in the sense that no new stars are formed, but significant mass and size growth is achieved by accreting smaller, gas-poor systems. At the same time the population of quiescent galaxies grows in number due to the quenching of larger star-forming galaxies. This picture is in agreement with other observational studies, such as measurements of the merger rate and analyses of galaxy evolution at fixed number density.

Faint Galaxies in the Megaparsec-Scale Environments of Hyperluminous QSOs at Redshifts 2 < z < 3

This thesis presents detailed observational studies of the extended distributions of gas, galaxies, and dark matter around hyperluminous quasars (HLQSOs) at high redshift. Taken together, these works aim to coherently describe the relationships between these massive, accreting black holes and their environments: the nature of the regions that give rise to such massive black holes, the effect of HLQSO radiation on their surrounding galaxies and gas, and the ability of both galaxies and black holes to shed new light on the formation and evolution of the other.

Chapter 2 focuses on the continuum-color-selected galaxies drawn from the Keck Baryonic Structure Survey (KBSS). The KBSS is a uniquely deep spectroscopic survey of star-forming galaxies in the same volumes of space as 15 HLQSOs at 2.5 < z < 2.9. The three-dimensional distribution of these galaxies among themselves and the nearby HLQSOs is used to infer the extent to which these black holes are associated with overdense peaks in the dark matter and galaxy distribution as quantified by clustering statistics. In conjunction with recent dark-matter simulations, these data provide the first estimates of the host dark-matter halo masses for HLQSOs, providing new insight into the formation and evolution of the most massive black holes at high redshift.

Chapter 3 describes the first results from a new survey (KBSS-Lyα) conducted for this thesis. The KBSS-Lyα survey uses narrowband imaging to identify Lyα-emitters (LAEs) in the ~Mpc regions around eight of the KBSS HLQSOs. Many of these LAEs show the effect of reprocessed HLQSO radiation in their emission through the process known as Lyα fluorescence. In this chapter, these fluorescent LAEs are used to generate a coarse map of the average HLQSO ionizing emission on Mpc scales, thereby setting the first direct constraints of the lifetime and angular distribution of activity for a population of these uniquely luminous black holes.

Chapter 4 contains a more detailed description of the KBSS-Lyα survey itself and the detailed properties of the star-forming and fluorescent objects selected therein. Using imaging and spectroscopic data covering rest-frame UV and optical wavelengths, including spectra from the new near-infrared spectrometer MOSFIRE, we characterize this population of nascent galaxies in terms of their kinematics, enrichment, gas properties, and luminosity distribution while comparing and contrasting them with previously-studied populations of continuum-selected galaxies and LAEs far from the effects of HLQSO emission.

At the conclusion of this thesis, I briefly present future directions for the continuation of this research. In Appendix A, I provide background information on the instrumentation used in this thesis, including my own contributions to MOSFIRE.

A Multiwavelength Study of the Intracluster Medium and the Characterization of the Multiwavelength Sub/millimeter Inductance Camera

The first part of this thesis combines Bolocam observations of the thermal Sunyaev-Zel’dovich (SZ) effect at 140 GHz with X-ray observations from Chandra, strong lensing data from the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), and weak lensing data from HST and Subaru to constrain parametric models for the distribution of dark and baryonic matter in a sample of six massive, dynamically relaxed galaxy clusters. For five of the six clusters, the full multiwavelength dataset is well described by a relatively simple model that assumes spherical symmetry, hydrostatic equilibrium, and entirely thermal pressure support. The multiwavelength analysis yields considerably better constraints on the total mass and concentration compared to analysis of any one dataset individually. The subsample of five galaxy clusters is used to place an upper limit on the fraction of pressure support in the intracluster medium (ICM) due to nonthermal processes, such as turbulent and bulk flow of the gas. We constrain the nonthermal pressure fraction at r500c to be less than 0.11 at 95% confidence, where r500c refers to radius at which the average enclosed density is 500 times the critical density of the Universe. This is in tension with state-of-the-art hydrodynamical simulations, which predict a nonthermal pressure fraction of approximately 0.25 at r500c for the clusters in this sample.

The second part of this thesis focuses on the characterization of the Multiwavelength Sub/millimeter Inductance Camera (MUSIC), a photometric imaging camera that was commissioned at the Caltech Submillimeter Observatory (CSO) in 2012. MUSIC is designed to have a 14 arcminute, diffraction-limited field of view populated with 576 spatial pixels that are simultaneously sensitive to four bands at 150, 220, 290, and 350 GHz. It is well-suited for studies of dusty star forming galaxies, galaxy clusters via the SZ Effect, and galactic star formation. MUSIC employs a number of novel detector technologies: broadband phased-arrays of slot dipole antennas for beam formation, on-chip lumped element filters for band definition, and Microwave Kinetic Inductance Detectors (MKIDs) for transduction of incoming light to electric signal. MKIDs are superconducting micro-resonators coupled to a feedline. Incoming light breaks apart Cooper pairs in the superconductor, causing a change in the quality factor and frequency of the resonator. This is read out as amplitude and phase modulation of a microwave probe signal centered on the resonant frequency. By tuning each resonator to a slightly different frequency and sending out a superposition of probe signals, hundreds of detectors can be read out on a single feedline. This natural capability for large scale, frequency domain multiplexing combined with relatively simple fabrication makes MKIDs a promising low temperature detector for future kilopixel sub/millimeter instruments. There is also considerable interest in using MKIDs for optical through near-infrared spectrophotometry due to their fast microsecond response time and modest energy resolution. In order to optimize the MKID design to obtain suitable performance for any particular application, it is critical to have a well-understood physical model for the detectors and the sources of noise to which they are susceptible. MUSIC has collected many hours of on-sky data with over 1000 MKIDs. This work studies the performance of the detectors in the context of one such physical model. Chapter 2 describes the theoretical model for the responsivity and noise of MKIDs. Chapter 3 outlines the set of measurements used to calibrate this model for the MUSIC detectors. Chapter 4 presents the resulting estimates of the spectral response, optical efficiency, and on-sky loading. The measured detector response to Uranus is compared to the calibrated model prediction in order to determine how well the model describes the propagation of signal through the full instrument. Chapter 5 examines the noise present in the detector timestreams during recent science observations. Noise due to fluctuations in atmospheric emission dominate at long timescales (less than 0.5 Hz). Fluctuations in the amplitude and phase of the microwave probe signal due to the readout electronics contribute significant 1/f and drift-type noise at shorter timescales. The atmospheric noise is removed by creating a template for the fluctuations in atmospheric emission from weighted averages of the detector timestreams. The electronics noise is removed by using probe signals centered off-resonance to construct templates for the amplitude and phase fluctuations. The algorithms that perform the atmospheric and electronic noise removal are described. After removal, we find good agreement between the observed residual noise and our expectation for intrinsic detector noise over a significant fraction of the signal bandwidth.

Lurking in ULIRGs: Molecular Gas in local Merging Galaxies

Mergers and interacting galaxies are pivotal to the evolution of galaxies in the universe. They are the sites of prodigious star formation and key to understanding the starburst processes: the physical and chemical properties and the dynamics of the molecular gas. ULIRGs or Ultraluminous Infrared Galaxies are a result of many of these mergers. They host extreme starbursts, AGNs, and mergers. They are the perfect laboratory to probe the connection between starbursts, black hole accretion and mergers and to further our understanding of star formation and merging.

NGC 6240 and Arp 220 can be considered the founding members of this very active class of objects. They are in different stages of merging and hence are excellent case studies to further our understanding about the merging process. We have imaged the dense star-forming regions of these galaxies at sub-arcsec resolution with CARMA C and B Configurations (2" and 0.5 - 0.8"). Multi-band imaging allows excitation analysis of HCN, HCO⁺, HNC, and CS along with CO transitions to constrain the properties of the gas. Our dataset is unique in that we have observed these lines at similar resolutions and high sensitivity which can be used to derive line ratios of faint high excitation lines.

Arp 220 has not had confirmed X-ray AGN detections for either nuclei. However, our observations indicate HCN/HNC ratios consistent with the chemistry of X-ray Dominated Regions (XDRs) -- a likely symptom of AGN. We calculated the molecular Hydrogen densities using each of the molecular species and conclude that assuming abundances of HNC and HCO⁺ similar to those in galactic sources are incorrect in the case of ULIRGs. The physical conditions in the dense molecular gas in ULIRGs alter these abundances. The derived H2 volume densities are ~ 5 x 10⁴ cm^-3 in both Arp 220 nuclei and ~ 10⁴ cm^-3 in NGC 6240.

Instrumentation for Kinetic-Inductance-Detector-Based Submillimeter Radio Astronomy

A substantial amount of important scientific information is contained within astronomical data at the submillimeter and far-infrared (FIR) wavelengths, including information regarding dusty galaxies, galaxy clusters, and star-forming regions; however, these wavelengths are among the least-explored fields in astronomy because of the technological difficulties involved in such research. Over the past 20 years, considerable efforts have been devoted to developing submillimeter- and millimeter-wavelength astronomical instruments and telescopes.

The number of detectors is an important property of such instruments and is the subject of the current study. Future telescopes will require as many as hundreds of thousands of detectors to meet the necessary requirements in terms of the field of view, scan speed, and resolution. A large pixel count is one benefit of the development of multiplexable detectors that use kinetic inductance detector (KID) technology.

This dissertation presents the development of a KID-based instrument including a portion of the millimeter-wave bandpass filters and all aspects of the readout electronics, which together enabled one of the largest detector counts achieved to date in submillimeter-/millimeter-wavelength imaging arrays: a total of 2304 detectors. The work presented in this dissertation has been implemented in the MUltiwavelength Submillimeter Inductance Camera (MUSIC), a new instrument for the Caltech Submillimeter Observatory (CSO).

Neural routing circuits for forming invariant representations of visual objects

This thesis presents a biologically plausible model of an attentional mechanism for forming position- and scale-invariant representations of objects in the visual world. The model relies on a set of control neurons to dynamically modify the synaptic strengths of intra-cortical connections so that information from a windowed region of primary visual cortex (Vl) is selectively routed to higher cortical areas. Local spatial relationships (i.e., topography) within the attentional window are preserved as information is routed through the cortex, thus enabling attended objects to be represented in higher cortical areas within an object-centered reference frame that is position and scale invariant. The representation in V1 is modeled as a multiscale stack of sample nodes with progressively lower resolution at higher eccentricities. Large changes in the size of the attentional window are accomplished by switching between different levels of the multiscale stack, while positional shifts and small changes in scale are accomplished by translating and rescaling the window within a single level of the stack. The control signals for setting the position and size of the attentional window are hypothesized to originate from neurons in the pulvinar and in the deep layers of visual cortex. The dynamics of these control neurons are governed by simple differential equations that can be realized by neurobiologically plausible circuits. In pre-attentive mode, the control neurons receive their input from a low-level "saliency map" representing potentially interesting regions of a scene. During the pattern recognition phase, control neurons are driven by the interaction between top-down (memory) and bottom-up (retinal input) sources. The model respects key neurophysiological, neuroanatomical, and psychophysical data relating to attention, and it makes a variety of experimentally testable predictions.

Pharmacology and pore-forming domains of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator

The cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is a chloride channel member of the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) superfamily of membrane proteins. CFTR has two homologous halves, each consisting of six transmembrane spanning domains (TM) followed by a nucleotide binding fold, connected by a regulatory (R) domain. This thesis addresses the question of which domains are responsible for Cl^- selectivity, i.e., which domains line the channel pore.

To address this question, novel blockers of CFTR were characterized. CFTR was heterologously expressed in Xenopus oocytes to study the mechanism of block by two closely related arylaminobenzoates, diphenylamine-2-carboxylic acid (DPC) and flufenamic acid (FFA). Block by both is voltage-dependent, with a binding site ≈ 40% through the electric field of the membrane. DPC and FFA can both reach their binding site from either side of the membrane to produce a flickering block of CFTR single channels. In addition, DPC block is influenced by Cl^- concentration, and DPC blocks with a bimolecular forward binding rate and a unimolecular dissociation rate. Therefore, DPC and FFA are open-channel blockers of CFTR, and a residue of CFTR whose mutation affects their binding must line the pore.

Screening of site-directed mutants for altered DPC binding affinity reveals that TM-6 and TM-12 line the pore. Mutation of residue 5341 in TM-6 abolishes most DPC block, greatly reduces single-channel conductance, and alters the direction of current rectification. Additional residues are found in TM-6 (K335) and TM-12 (T1134) whose mutations weaken or strengthen DPC block; other mutations move the DPC binding site from TM-6 to TM-12. The strengthened block and lower conductance due to mutation T1134F is quantitated at the single-channel level. The geometry of DPC and of the residues mutated suggest α-helical structures for TM-6 and TM-12. Evidence is presented that the effects of the mutations are due to direct side-chain interaction, and not to allosteric effects propagated through the protein. Mutations are also made in TM-11, including mutation S1118F, which gives voltage-dependent current relaxations. The results may guide future studies on permeation through ABC transporters and through other Cl^- channels.

Diffraction-limited imaging on the 200-inch telescope

We have used the technique of non-redundant masking at the Palomar 200-inch telescope and radio VLBI imaging software to make optical aperture synthesis maps of two binary stars, β Corona Borealis and σ Herculis. The dynamic range of the map of β CrB, a binary star with a separation of 230 milliarcseconds is 50:1. For σ Her, we find a separation of 70 milliarcseconds and the dynamic range of our image is 30:1. These demonstrate the potential of the non-redundant masking technique for diffraction-limited imaging of astronomical objects with high dynamic range.

We find that the optimal integration time for measuring the closure phase is longer than that for measuring the fringe amplitude. There is not a close relationship between amplitude errors and phase errors, as is found in radio interferometry. Amplitude self calibration is less effective at optical wavelengths than at radio wavelengths. Primary beam sensitivity correction made in radio aperture synthesis is not necessary in optical aperture synthesis.

The effects of atmospheric disturbances on optical aperture synthesis have been studied by Monte Carlo simulations based on the Kolmogorov theory of refractive-index fluctuations. For the non-redundant masking with τ_c-sized apertures, the simulated fringe amplitude gives an upper bound of the observed fringe amplitude. A smooth transition is seen from the non-redundant masking regime to the speckle regime with increasing aperture size. The fractional reduction of the fringe amplitude according to the bandwidth is nearly independent of the aperture size. The limiting magnitude of optical aperture synthesis with τ_c-sized apertures and that with apertures larger than τ_c are derived.

Monte Carlo simulations are also made to study the sensitivity and resolution of the bispectral analysis of speckle interferometry. We present the bispectral modulation transfer function and its signal-to-noise ratio at high light levels. The results confirm the validity of the heuristic interferometric view of image-forming process in the mid-spatial-frequency range. The signal-to- noise ratio of the bispectrum at arbitrary light levels is derived in the mid-spatial-frequency range.

The non-redundant masking technique is suitable for imaging bright objects with high resolution and high dynamic range, while the faintest limit will be better pursued by speckle imaging.

Where Tori fear to tread : hypermassive neutron star remnants and absolute event horizons Or topics in computational general relativity

Computational general relativity is a field of study which has reached maturity only within the last decade. This thesis details several studies that elucidate phenomena related to the coalescence of compact object binaries. Chapters 2 and 3 recounts work towards developing new analytical tools for visualizing and reasoning about dynamics in strongly curved spacetimes. In both studies, the results employ analogies with the classical theory of electricity and magnitism, first (Ch. 2) in the post-Newtonian approximation to general relativity and then (Ch. 3) in full general relativity though in the absence of matter sources. In Chapter 4, we examine the topological structure of absolute event horizons during binary black hole merger simulations conducted with the SpEC code. Chapter 6 reports on the progress of the SpEC code in simulating the coalescence of neutron star-neutron star binaries, while Chapter 7 tests the effects of various numerical gauge conditions on the robustness of black hole formation from stellar collapse in SpEC. In Chapter 5, we examine the nature of pseudospectral expansions of non-smooth functions motivated by the need to simulate the stellar surface in Chapters 6 and 7. In Chapter 8, we study how thermal effects in the nuclear equation of state effect the equilibria and stability of hypermassive neutron stars. Chapter 9 presents supplements to the work in Chapter 8, including an examination of the stability question raised in Chapter 8 in greater mathematical detail.

Carbon-carbon bond forming reactions from bis(carbene)-platinum(II) complexes and olefin polymerization and oligomerization using group 4 post-metallocene complexes

A long-standing challenge in transition metal catalysis is selective C–C bond coupling of simple feedstocks, such as carbon monoxide, ethylene or propylene, to yield value-added products. This work describes efforts toward selective C–C bond formation using early- and late-transition metals, which may have important implications for the production of fuels and plastics, as well as many other commodity chemicals.

The industrial Fischer-Tropsch (F-T) process converts synthesis gas (syngas, a mixture of CO + H₂) into a complex mixture of hydrocarbons and oxygenates. Well-defined homogeneous catalysts for F-T may provide greater product selectivity for fuel-range liquid hydrocarbons compared to traditional heterogeneous catalysts. The first part of this work involved the preparation of late-transition metal complexes for use in syngas conversion. We investigated C–C bond forming reactions via carbene coupling using bis(carbene)platinum(II) compounds, which are models for putative metal–carbene intermediates in F-T chemistry. It was found that C–C bond formation could be induced by either (1) chemical reduction of or (2) exogenous phosphine coordination to the platinum(II) starting complexes. These two mild methods afforded different products, constitutional isomers, suggesting that at least two different mechanisms are possible for C–C bond formation from carbene intermediates. These results are encouraging for the development of a multicomponent homogeneous catalysis system for the generation of higher hydrocarbons.

A second avenue of research focused on the design and synthesis of post-metallocene catalysts for olefin polymerization. The polymerization chemistry of a new class of group 4 complexes supported by asymmetric anilide(pyridine)phenolate (NNO) pincer ligands was explored. Unlike typical early transition metal polymerization catalysts, NNO-ligated catalysts produce nearly regiorandom polypropylene, with as many as 30-40 mol % of insertions being 2,1-inserted (versus 1,2-inserted), compared to <1 mol % in most metallocene systems. A survey of model Ti polymerization catalysts suggests that catalyst modification pathways that could affect regioselectivity, such as C–H activation of the anilide ring, cleavage of the amine R-group, or monomer insertion into metal–ligand bonds are unlikely. A parallel investigation of a Ti–amido(pyridine)phenolate polymerization catalyst, which features a five- rather than a six-membered Ti–N chelate ring, but maintained a dianionic NNO motif, revealed that simply maintaining this motif was not enough to produce regioirregular polypropylene; in fact, these experiments seem to indicate that only an intact anilide(pyridine)phenolate ligated-complex will lead to regioirregular polypropylene. As yet, the underlying causes for the unique regioselectivity of anilide(pyridine)phenolate polymerization catalysts remains unknown. Further exploration of NNO-ligated polymerization catalysts could lead to the controlled synthesis of new types of polymer architectures.

Finally, we investigated the reactivity of a known Ti–phenoxy(imine) (Ti-FI) catalyst that has been shown to be very active for ethylene homotrimerization in an effort to upgrade simple feedstocks to liquid hydrocarbon fuels through co-oligomerization of heavy and light olefins. We demonstrated that the Ti-FI catalyst can homo-oligomerize 1-hexene to C₁₂ and C₁₈ alkenes through olefin dimerization and trimerization, respectively. Future work will include kinetic studies to determine monomer selectivity by investigating the relative rates of insertion of light olefins (e.g., ethylene) vs. higher α-olefins, as well as a more detailed mechanistic study of olefin trimerization. Our ultimate goal is to exploit this catalyst in a multi-catalyst system for conversion of simple alkenes into hydrocarbon fuels.

Chain-forming zintl antimonides as novel thermoelectric materials

Zintl phases, a subset of intermetallic compounds characterized by covalently-bonded "sub-structures," surrounded by highly electropositive cations, exhibit precisely the characteristics desired for thermoelectric applications. The requirement that Zintl compounds satisfy the valence of anions through the formation of covalent substructures leads to many unique, complex crystal structures. Such complexity often leads to exceptionally low lattice thermal conductivity due to the containment of heat in low velocity optical modes in the phonon dispersion. To date, excellent thermoelectric properties have been demonstrated in several Zintl compounds. However, compared with the large number of known Zintl phases, very few have been investigated as thermoelectric materials.

From this pool of uninvestigated compounds, we selected a class of Zintl antimonides that share a common structural motif: anionic moieties resembling infinite chains of linked MSb₄ tetrahedra, where $M$ is a triel element. The compounds discussed in this thesis (A₅M₂Sb₆ and A₃MSb₃, where A = Ca or Sr and M = Al, Ga and In) crystallize as four distinct, but closely related "chain-forming" structure types. This thesis describes the thermoelectric characterization and optimization of these phases, and explores the influence of their chemistry and structure on the thermal and electronic transport properties. Due to their large unit cells, each compound exhibits exceptionally low lattice thermal conductivity (0.4 - 0.6 W/mK at 1000 K), approaching the predicted glassy minimum at high temperatures. A combination of Density Functional calculations and classical transport models were used to explain the experimentally observed electronic transport properties of each compound. Consistent with the Zintl electron counting formalism, A₅M₂Sb₆ and A₃MSb₃ phases were found to have filled valence bands and exhibit intrinsic electronic properties. Doping with divalent transition metals (Zn²⁺ and Mn²⁺) on the M³⁺ site, or Na¹⁺ on the A³⁺ site allowed for rational control of the carrier concentration and a transition towards degenerate semiconducting behavior. In optimally-doped samples, promising peak zT values between 0.4 and 0.9 were obtained, highlighting the value of continued investigations of complex Zintl phases.

The needle in the hundred square degree haystack: The hunt for binary neutron star mergers with LIGO and Palomar Transient Factory

The Advanced LIGO and Virgo experiments are poised to detect gravitational waves (GWs) directly for the first time this decade. The ultimate prize will be joint observation of a compact binary merger in both gravitational and electromagnetic channels. However, GW sky locations that are uncertain by hundreds of square degrees will pose a challenge. I describe a real-time detection pipeline and a rapid Bayesian parameter estimation code that will make it possible to search promptly for optical counterparts in Advanced LIGO. Having analyzed a comprehensive population of simulated GW sources, we describe the sky localization accuracy that the GW detector network will achieve as each detector comes online and progresses toward design sensitivity. Next, in preparation for the optical search with the intermediate Palomar Transient Factory (iPTF), we have developed a unique capability to detect optical afterglows of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) detected by the Fermi Gamma-ray Burst Monitor (GBM). Its comparable error regions offer a close parallel to the Advanced LIGO problem, but Fermi's unique access to MeV-GeV photons and its near all-sky coverage may allow us to look at optical afterglows in a relatively unexplored part of the GRB parameter space. We present the discovery and broadband follow-up observations (X-ray, UV, optical, millimeter, and radio) of eight GBM-IPTF afterglows. Two of the bursts (GRB 130702A / iPTF13bxl and GRB 140606B / iPTF14bfu) are at low redshift (z=0.145 and z = 0.384, respectively), are sub-luminous with respect to "standard" cosmological bursts, and have spectroscopically confirmed broad-line type Ic supernovae. These two bursts are possibly consistent with mildly relativistic shocks breaking out from the progenitor envelopes rather than the standard mechanism of internal shocks within an ultra-relativistic jet. On a technical level, the GBM--IPTF effort is a prototype for locating and observing optical counterparts of GW events in Advanced LIGO with the Zwicky Transient Facility.