Microwave dynamics of quasiparticles and critical fields in superconducting films

The microwave response of the superconducting state in equilibrium and non-equilibrium configurations was examined experimentally and analytically. Thin film superconductors were mostly studied in order to explore spatial effects. The response parameter measured was the surface impedance.

For small microwave intensity the surface impedance at 10 GHz was measured for a variety of samples (mostly Sn) over a wide range of sample thickness and temperature. A detailed analysis based on the BCS theory was developed for calculating the surface impedance for general thickness and other experimental parameters. Experiment and theory agreed with each other to within the experimental accuracy. Thus it was established that the samples, thin films as well as bulk, were well characterised at low microwave powers (near equilibrium).

Thin films were perturbed by a small dc supercurrent and the effect on the superconducting order parameter and the quasiparticle response determined by measuring changes in the surface resistance (still at low microwave intensity and independent of it) due to the induced current. The use of fully superconducting resonators enabled the measurement of very small changes in the surface resistance (< 10^-9 Ω/sq.). These experiments yield information regarding the dynamics of the order parameter and quasiparticle systems. For all the films studied the results could be described at temperatures near T_c by the thermodynamic depression of the order parameter due to the static current leading to a quadratic increase of the surface resistance with current.

For the thinnest films the low temperature results were surprising in that the surface resistance decreased with increasing current. An explanation is proposed according to which this decrease occurs due to an additional high frequency quasiparticle current caused by the combined presence of both static and high frequency fields. For frequencies larger than the inverse of the quasiparticle relaxation time this additional current is out of phase (by π) with the microwave electric field and is observed as a decrease of surface resistance. Calculations agree quantitatively with experimental results. This is the first observation and explanation of this non-equilibrium quasiparticle effect.

For thicker films of Sn, the low temperature surface resistance was found to increase with applied static current. It is proposed that due to the spatial non-uniformity of the induced current distribution across the thicker films, the above purely temporal analysis of the local quasiparticle response needs to be generalised to include space and time non-equilibrium effects.

The nonlinear interaction of microwaves arid superconducting films was also examined in a third set of experiments. The surface impedance of thin films was measured as a function of the incident microwave magnetic field. The experiments exploit the ability to measure the absorbed microwave power and applied microwave magnetic field absolutely. It was found that the applied surface microwave field could not be raised above a certain threshold level at which the absorption increased abruptly. This critical field level represents a dynamic critical field and was found to be associated with the penetration of the app1ied field into the film at values well below the thermodynamic critical field for the configuration of a field applied to one side of the film. The penetration occurs despite the thermal stability of the film which was unequivocally demonstrated by experiment. A new mechanism for such penetration via the formation of a vortex-antivortex pair is proposed. The experimental results for the thinnest films agreed with the calculated values of this pair generation field. The observations of increased transmission at the critical field level and suppression of the process by a metallic ground plane further support the proposed model.

Dense, efficient chip-to-chip communication at the extremes of computing

The scalability of CMOS technology has driven computation into a diverse range of applications across the power consumption, performance and size spectra. Communication is a necessary adjunct to computation, and whether this is to push data from node-to-node in a high-performance computing cluster or from the receiver of wireless link to a neural stimulator in a biomedical implant, interconnect can take up a significant portion of the overall system power budget. Although a single interconnect methodology cannot address such a broad range of systems efficiently, there are a number of key design concepts that enable good interconnect design in the age of highly-scaled CMOS: an emphasis on highly-digital approaches to solving ‘analog’ problems, hardware sharing between links as well as between different functions (such as equalization and synchronization) in the same link, and adaptive hardware that changes its operating parameters to mitigate not only variation in the fabrication of the link, but also link conditions that change over time. These concepts are demonstrated through the use of two design examples, at the extremes of the power and performance spectra.

A novel all-digital clock and data recovery technique for high-performance, high density interconnect has been developed. Two independently adjustable clock phases are generated from a delay line calibrated to 2 UI. One clock phase is placed in the middle of the eye to recover the data, while the other is swept across the delay line. The samples produced by the two clocks are compared to generate eye information, which is used to determine the best phase for data recovery. The functions of the two clocks are swapped after the data phase is updated; this ping-pong action allows an infinite delay range without the use of a PLL or DLL. The scheme's generalized sampling and retiming architecture is used in a sharing technique that saves power and area in high-density interconnect. The eye information generated is also useful for tuning an adaptive equalizer, circumventing the need for dedicated adaptation hardware.

On the other side of the performance/power spectra, a capacitive proximity interconnect has been developed to support 3D integration of biomedical implants. In order to integrate more functionality while staying within size limits, implant electronics can be embedded onto a foldable parylene (‘origami’) substrate. Many of the ICs in an origami implant will be placed face-to-face with each other, so wireless proximity interconnect can be used to increase communication density while decreasing implant size, as well as facilitate a modular approach to implant design, where pre-fabricated parylene-and-IC modules are assembled together on-demand to make custom implants. Such an interconnect needs to be able to sense and adapt to changes in alignment. The proposed array uses a TDC-like structure to realize both communication and alignment sensing within the same set of plates, increasing communication density and eliminating the need to infer link quality from a separate alignment block. In order to distinguish the communication plates from the nearby ground plane, a stimulus is applied to the transmitter plate, which is rectified at the receiver to bias a delay generation block. This delay is in turn converted into a digital word using a TDC, providing alignment information.

High-energy scattering processes with cuts in the angular momentum plane

The experimental consequence of Regge cuts in the angular momentum plane are investigated. The principle tool in the study is the set of diagrams originally proposed by Amati, Fubini, and Stanghellini. Mandelstam has shown that the AFS cuts are actually cancelled on the physical sheet, but they may provide a useful guide to the properties of the real cuts. Inclusion of cuts modifies the simple Regge pole predictions for high-energy scattering data. As an example, an attempt is made to fit high energy elastic scattering data for pp, ṗp, π^±p, and K^±p, by replacing the Igi pole by terms representing the effect of a Regge cut. The data seem to be compatible with either a cut or the Igi pole.

Parylene-C as a new piezoelectric material

The goal of this thesis is to develop a proper microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) process to manufacture piezoelectric Parylene-C (PA-C), which is famous for its chemical inertness, mechanical and thermal properties and electrical insulation. Furthermore, piezoelectric PA-C is used to build miniature, inexpensive, non-biased piezoelectric microphones.

These piezoelectric PA-C MEMS microphones are to be used in any application where a conventional piezoelectric and electret microphone can be used, such as in cell phones and hearing aids. However, they have the advantage of a simplified fabrication process compared with existing technology. In addition, as a piezoelectric polymer, PA-C has varieties of applications due to its low dielectric constant, low elastic stiffness, low density, high voltage sensitivity, high temperature stability and low acoustic and mechanical impedance. Furthermore, PA-C is an FDA approved biocompatible material and is able to maintain operate at a high temperature.

To accomplish piezoelectric PA-C, a MEMS-compatible poling technology has been developed. The PA-C film is poled by applying electrical field during heating. The piezoelectric coefficient, -3.75pC/N, is obtained without film stretching.

The millimeter-scale piezoelectric PA-C microphone is fabricated with an in-plane spiral arrangement of two electrodes. The dynamic range is from less than 30 dB to above 110 dB SPL (referenced 20 µPa) and the open-circuit sensitivities are from 0.001 – 0.11 mV/Pa over a frequency range of 1 - 10 kHz. The total harmonic distortion of the device is less than 20% at 110 dB SPL and 1 kHz.

^(18)O/^(16)O and D/H studies on the interactions between heated meteoric ground waters and igneous intrusions: Western San Juan Mountains, Colorado and the Isle of Skye, Scotland

Detailed oxygen, hydrogen and carbon isotope studies have been carried out on igneous and metamorphic rocks of the Stony Mountain complex, Colorado, and the Isle of Skye, Scotland, in order to better understand the problems of hydrothermal meteoric water-rock interaction.

The Tertiary Stony Mountain stock (~1.3 km in diameter), is composed of an outer diorite, a main mass of biotite gabbro, and an inner diorite. The entire complex and most of the surrounding country rocks have experienced various degrees of ¹⁸O depletion (up to 10 per mil) due to interaction with heated meteoric waters. The inner diorite apparently formed from a low-¹⁸O magma with δ¹⁸O ≃ +2.5, but most of the isotopic effects are a result of exchange between H₂O and solidified igneous rocks. The low-¹⁸O inner diorite magma was probably produced by massive assimilation and/or melting of hydrothermally altered country rocks. The δ¹⁸O values of the rocks generally increase with increasing grain size, except that quartz typically has δ¹⁸O = +6 to +8, and is more resistant to hydrothermal exchange than any other mineral studied. Based on atom % oxygen, the outer diorites, gabbros, and volcanic rocks exhibit integrated water/rock ratios of 0.3 ± 0.2, 0.15 ± 0.1, and 0.2 ± 0.1, respectively. Locally, water/rock ratios attain values greater than 1.0. Hydrogen isotopic analyses of sericites, chlorites, biotites, and amphiboles range from -117 to -150. δD in biotites varies inversely with Fe/Fe+Mg, as predicted by Suzuoki and Epstein (1974), and positively with elevation, over a range of 600 m. The calculated δD of the mid-to-late-Tertiary meteoric waters is about -100. Carbonate δ¹³C values average -5.5 (PDB), within the generally accepted range for deep-seated carbon.

Almost all the rocks within 4 km of the central Tertiary intrusive complex of Skye are depleted in ¹⁸O. Whole-rock δ¹⁸O values of basalts (-7. 1 to +8.4), Mesozoic shales (-0.6 to + 12.4), and Precambrian sandstones (-6.2 to + 10.8) systematically decrease inward towards the center of the complex. The Cuillin gabbro may have formed from a ¹⁸O-depleted magma (depleted by about 2 per mil); δ¹⁸O of plagioclase (-7.1 to + 2.5) and pyroxene (-0.5 to + 3.2) decrease outward toward the margins of the pluton. The Red Hills epigranite plutons have δ¹⁸O quartz (-2.7 to + 7.6) and feldspar (-6.7 to + 6.0) that suggest about 3/4 of the exchange took place at subsolidus temperatures; profound disequilibrium quartz-feldspar fractionations (up to 12) are characteristic. The early epigranites were intruded as low-¹⁸O melts (depletions of up to 3 per mil) with δ¹⁸O of the primary, igneous quartz decreasing progressively with time. The Southern Porphyritic Epigranite was apparently intruded as a low-¹⁸O magma with δ¹⁸O ≃ -2.6. A good correlation exists between grain size and δ¹⁸O for the unique, high-¹⁸O Beinn an Dubhaich granite which intrudes limestone having a δ¹⁸O range of +0.5 to +20.8, and δ¹³C of -4.9 to -1.0. The δD values of sericites (-104 to -107), and amphiboles, chlorites, and biotites (-105 to -128) from the igneous rocks , indicate that Eocene surface waters at Skye had δD ≃ -90. The average water/rock ratio for the Skye hydrothermal system is approximately one; at least 2000 km³ of heated meteoric waters were cycled through these rocks.

Thus these detailed isotopic studies of two widely separated areas indicate that (1) ¹⁸O-depleted magmas are commonly produced in volcanic terranes invaded by epizonal intrusions; (2) most of the ¹⁸O-depletion in such areas are a result of subsolidus exchange (particularly of feldspars); however correlation of δ¹⁸O with grain size is generally preserved only for systems that have undergone relatively minor meteoric hydrothermal exchange; (3) feldspar and calcite are the minerals mos t susceptible to oxygen isotopic exchange, whereas quartz is very resistant to oxygen isotope exchange; biotite, magnetite, and pyroxene have intermediate susceptibilities; and (4) basaltic country rocks are much more permeable to the hydrothermal convective system than shale, sandstone, or the crystalline basement complex.

Understanding planet formation through high precision photometry and spectroscopy

From studies of protoplanetary disks to extrasolar planets and planetary debris, we aim to understand the full evolution of a planetary system. Observational constraints from ground- and space-based instrumentation allows us to measure the properties of objects near and far and are central to developing this understanding. We present here three observational campaigns that, when combined with theoretical models, reveal characteristics of different stages and remnants of planet formation. The Kuiper Belt provides evidence of chemical and dynamical activity that reveals clues to its primordial environment and subsequent evolution. Large samples of this population can only be assembled at optical wavelengths, with thermal measurements at infrared and sub-mm wavelengths currently available for only the largest and closest bodies. We measure the size and shape of one particular object precisely here, in hopes of better understanding its unique dynamical history and layered composition.

Molecular organic chemistry is one of the most fundamental and widespread facets of the universe, and plays a key role in planet formation. A host of carbon-containing molecules vibrationally emit in the near-infrared when excited by warm gas, T~1000 K. The NIRSPEC instrument at the W.M. Keck Observatory is uniquely configured to study large ranges of this wavelength region at high spectral resolution. Using this facility we present studies of warm CO gas in protoplanetary disks, with a new code for precise excitation modeling. A parameterized suite of models demonstrates the abilities of the code and matches observational constraints such as line strength and shape. We use the models to probe various disk parameters as well, which are easily extensible to others with known disk emission spectra such as water, carbon dioxide, acetylene, and hydrogen cyanide.

Lastly, the existence of molecules in extrasolar planets can also be studied with NIRSPEC and reveals a great deal about the evolution of the protoplanetary gas. The species we observe in protoplanetary disks are also often present in exoplanet atmospheres, and are abundant in Earth's atmosphere as well. Thus, a sophisticated telluric removal code is necessary to analyze these high dynamic range, high-resolution spectra. We present observations of a hot Jupiter, revealing water in its atmosphere and demonstrating a new technique for exoplanet mass determination and atmospheric characterization. We will also be applying this atmospheric removal code to the aforementioned disk observations, to improve our data analysis and probe less abundant species. Guiding models using observations is the only way to develop an accurate understanding of the timescales and processes involved. The futures of the modeling and of the observations are bright, and the end goal of realizing a unified model of planet formation will require both theory and data, from a diverse collection of sources.

High-strain composites and dual-matrix composite structures

Most space applications require deployable structures due to the limiting size of current launch vehicles. Specifically, payloads in nanosatellites such as CubeSats require very high compaction ratios due to the very limited space available in this typo of platform. Strain-energy-storing deployable structures can be suitable for these applications, but the curvature to which these structures can be folded is limited to the elastic range. Thanks to fiber microbuckling, high-strain composite materials can be folded into much higher curvatures without showing significant damage, which makes them suitable for very high compaction deployable structure applications. However, in applications that require carrying loads in compression, fiber microbuckling also dominates the strength of the material. A good understanding of the strength in compression of high-strain composites is then needed to determine how suitable they are for this type of application.

The goal of this thesis is to investigate, experimentally and numerically, the microbuckling in compression of high-strain composites. Particularly, the behavior in compression of unidirectional carbon fiber reinforced silicone rods (CFRS) is studied. Experimental testing of the compression failure of CFRS rods showed a higher strength in compression than the strength estimated by analytical models, which is unusual in standard polymer composites. This effect, first discovered in the present research, was attributed to the variation in random carbon fiber angles respect to the nominal direction. This is an important effect, as it implies that microbuckling strength might be increased by controlling the fiber angles. With a higher microbuckling strength, high-strain materials could carry loads in compression without reaching microbuckling and therefore be suitable for several space applications.

A finite element model was developed to predict the homogenized stiffness of the CFRS, and the homogenization results were used in another finite element model that simulated a homogenized rod under axial compression. A statistical representation of the fiber angles was implemented in the model. The presence of fiber angles increased the longitudinal shear stiffness of the material, resulting in a higher strength in compression. The simulations showed a large increase of the strength in compression for lower values of the standard deviation of the fiber angle, and a slight decrease of strength in compression for lower values of the mean fiber angle. The strength observed in the experiments was achieved with the minimum local angle standard deviation observed in the CFRS rods, whereas the shear stiffness measured in torsion tests was achieved with the overall fiber angle distribution observed in the CFRS rods.

High strain composites exhibit good bending capabilities, but they tend to be soft out-of-plane. To achieve a higher out-of-plane stiffness, the concept of dual-matrix composites is introduced. Dual-matrix composites are foldable composites which are soft in the crease regions and stiff elsewhere. Previous attempts to fabricate continuous dual-matrix fiber composite shells had limited performance due to excessive resin flow and matrix mixing. An alternative method, presented in this thesis uses UV-cure silicone and fiberglass to avoid these problems. Preliminary experiments on the effect of folding on the out-of-plane stiffness are presented. An application to a conical log-periodic antenna for CubeSats is proposed, using origami-inspired stowing schemes, that allow a conical dual-matrix composite shell to reach very high compaction ratios.

Advancing EDL technologies for future space missions : from ground testing facilities to ablative heatshields

Motivated by recent MSL results where the ablation rate of the PICA heatshield was over-predicted, and staying true to the objectives outlined in the NASA Space Technology Roadmaps and Priorities report, this work focuses on advancing EDL technologies for future space missions.

Due to the difficulties in performing flight tests in the hypervelocity regime, a new ground testing facility called the vertical expansion tunnel is proposed. The adverse effects from secondary diaphragm rupture in an expansion tunnel may be reduced or eliminated by orienting the tunnel vertically, matching the test gas pressure and the accelerator gas pressure, and initially separating the test gas from the accelerator gas by density stratification. If some sacrifice of the reservoir conditions can be made, the VET can be utilized in hypervelocity ground testing, without the problems associated with secondary diaphragm rupture.

The performance of different constraints for the Rate-Controlled Constrained-Equilibrium (RCCE) method is investigated in the context of modeling reacting flows characteristic to ground testing facilities, and re-entry conditions. The effectiveness of different constraints are isolated, and new constraints previously unmentioned in the literature are introduced. Three main benefits from the RCCE method were determined: 1) the reduction in number of equations that need to be solved to model a reacting flow; 2) the reduction in stiffness of the system of equations needed to be solved; and 3) the ability to tabulate chemical properties as a function of a constraint once, prior to running a simulation, along with the ability to use the same table for multiple simulations.

Finally, published physical properties of PICA are compiled, and the composition of the pyrolysis gases that form at high temperatures internal to a heatshield is investigated. A necessary link between the composition of the solid resin, and the composition of the pyrolysis gases created is provided. This link, combined with a detailed investigation into a reacting pyrolysis gas mixture, allows a much needed consistent, and thorough description of many of the physical phenomena occurring in a PICA heatshield, and their implications, to be presented.

Through the use of computational fluid mechanics and computational chemistry methods, significant contributions have been made to advancing ground testing facilities, computational methods for reacting flows, and ablation modeling.

Propagation of the fast magnetosonic wave in a tokamak plasma

The propagation of the fast magnetosonic wave in a tokamak plasma has been investigated at low power, between 10 and 300 watts, as a prelude to future heating experiments.

The attention of the experiments has been focused on the understanding of the coupling between a loop antenna and a plasma-filled cavity. Special emphasis has been given to the measurement of the complex loading impedance of the plasma. The importance of this measurement is that once the complex loading impedance of the plasma is known, a matching network can be designed so that the r.f. generator impedance can be matched to one of the cavity modes, thus delivering maximum power to the plasma. For future heating experiments it will be essential to be able to match the generator impedance to a cavity mode in order to couple the r.f. energy efficiently to the plasma.

As a consequence of the complex impedance measurements, it was discovered that the designs of the transmitting antenna and the impedance matching network are both crucial. The losses in the antenna and the matching network must be kept below the plasma loading in order to be able to detect the complex plasma loading impedance. This is even more important in future heating experiments, because the fundamental basis for efficient heating before any other consideration is to deliver more energy into the plasma than is dissipated in the antenna system.

The characteristics of the magnetosonic cavity modes are confirmed by three different methods. First, the cavity modes are observed as voltage maxima at the output of a six-turn receiving probe. Second, they also appear as maxima in the input resistance of the transmitting antenna. Finally, when the real and imaginary parts of the measured complex input impedance of the antenna are plotted in the complex impedance plane, the resulting curves are approximately circles, indicating a resonance phenomenon.

The observed plasma loading resistances at the various cavity modes are as high as 3 to 4 times the basic antenna resistance (~ .4 Ω). The estimated cavity Q’s were between 400 and 700. This means that efficient energy coupling into the tokamak and low losses in the antenna system are possible.

Deep near-infrared spectroscopy of high-redshift galaxies: the physical growth of passive systems

The assembly history of massive galaxies is one of the most important aspects of galaxy formation and evolution. Although we have a broad idea of what physical processes govern the early phases of galaxy evolution, there are still many open questions. In this thesis I demonstrate the crucial role that spectroscopy can play in a physical understanding of galaxy evolution. I present deep near-infrared spectroscopy for a sample of high-redshift galaxies, from which I derive important physical properties and their evolution with cosmic time. I take advantage of the recent arrival of efficient near-infrared detectors to target the rest-frame optical spectra of z > 1 galaxies, from which many physical quantities can be derived. After illustrating the applications of near-infrared deep spectroscopy with a study of star-forming galaxies, I focus on the evolution of massive quiescent systems.

Most of this thesis is based on two samples collected at the W. M. Keck Observatory that represent a significant step forward in the spectroscopic study of z > 1 quiescent galaxies. All previous spectroscopic samples at this redshift were either limited to a few objects, or much shallower in terms of depth. Our first sample is composed of 56 quiescent galaxies at 1 < z < 1.6 collected using the upgraded red arm of the Low Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (LRIS). The second consists of 24 deep spectra of 1.5 < z < 2.5 quiescent objects observed with the Multi-Object Spectrometer For Infra-Red Exploration (MOSFIRE). Together, these spectra span the critical epoch 1 < z < 2.5, where most of the red sequence is formed, and where the sizes of quiescent systems are observed to increase significantly.

We measure stellar velocity dispersions and dynamical masses for the largest number of z > 1 quiescent galaxies to date. By assuming that the velocity dispersion of a massive galaxy does not change throughout its lifetime, as suggested by theoretical studies, we match galaxies in the local universe with their high-redshift progenitors. This allows us to derive the physical growth in mass and size experienced by individual systems, which represents a substantial advance over photometric inferences based on the overall galaxy population. We find a significant physical growth among quiescent galaxies over 0 < z < 2.5 and, by comparing the slope of growth in the mass-size plane dlogR_e/dlogM_∗ with the results of numerical simulations, we can constrain the physical process responsible for the evolution. Our results show that the slope of growth becomes steeper at higher redshifts, yet is broadly consistent with minor mergers being the main process by which individual objects evolve in mass and size.

By fitting stellar population models to the observed spectroscopy and photometry we derive reliable ages and other stellar population properties. We show that the addition of the spectroscopic data helps break the degeneracy between age and dust extinction, and yields significantly more robust results compared to fitting models to the photometry alone. We detect a clear relation between size and age, where larger galaxies are younger. Therefore, over time the average size of the quiescent population will increase because of the contribution of large galaxies recently arrived to the red sequence. This effect, called progenitor bias, is different from the physical size growth discussed above, but represents another contribution to the observed difference between the typical sizes of low- and high-redshift quiescent galaxies. By reconstructing the evolution of the red sequence starting at z ∼ 1.25 and using our stellar population histories to infer the past behavior to z ∼ 2, we demonstrate that progenitor bias accounts for only half of the observed growth of the population. The remaining size evolution must be due to physical growth of individual systems, in agreement with our dynamical study.

Finally, we use the stellar population properties to explore the earliest periods which led to the formation of massive quiescent galaxies. We find tentative evidence for two channels of star formation quenching, which suggests the existence of two independent physical mechanisms. We also detect a mass downsizing, where more massive galaxies form at higher redshift, and then evolve passively. By analyzing in depth the star formation history of the brightest object at z > 2 in our sample, we are able to put constraints on the quenching timescale and on the properties of its progenitor.

A consistent picture emerges from our analyses: massive galaxies form at very early epochs, are quenched on short timescales, and then evolve passively. The evolution is passive in the sense that no new stars are formed, but significant mass and size growth is achieved by accreting smaller, gas-poor systems. At the same time the population of quiescent galaxies grows in number due to the quenching of larger star-forming galaxies. This picture is in agreement with other observational studies, such as measurements of the merger rate and analyses of galaxy evolution at fixed number density.

Investigation of strong earthquake ground motion

The pattern of energy release during the Imperial Valley, California, earthquake of 1940 is studied by analysing the El Centro strong motion seismograph record and records from the Tinemaha seismograph station, 546 km from the epicenter. The earthquake was a multiple event sequence with at least 4 events recorded at El Centro in the first 25 seconds, followed by 9 events recorded in the next 5 minutes. Clear P, S and surface waves were observed on the strong motion record. Although the main part of the earthquake energy was released during the first 15 seconds, some of the later events were as large as M = 5.8 and thus are important for earthquake engineering studies. The moment calculated using Fourier analysis of surface waves agrees with the moment estimated from field measurements of fault offset after the earthquake. The earthquake engineering significance of the complex pattern of energy release is discussed. It is concluded that a cumulative increase in amplitudes of building vibration resulting from the present sequence of shocks would be significant only for structures with relatively long natural period of vibration. However, progressive weakening effects may also lead to greater damage for multiple event earthquakes.

The model with surface Love waves propagating through a single layer as a surface wave guide is studied. It is expected that the derived properties for this simple model illustrate well several phenomena associated with strong earthquake ground motion. First, it is shown that a surface layer, or several layers, will cause the main part of the high frequency energy, radiated from the nearby earthquake, to be confined to the layer as a wave guide. The existence of the surface layer will thus increase the rate of the energy transfer into the man-made structures on or near the surface of the layer. Secondly, the surface amplitude of the guided SH waves will decrease if the energy of the wave is essentially confined to the layer and if the wave propagates towards an increasing layer thickness. It is also shown that the constructive interference of SH waves will cause the zeroes and the peaks in the Fourier amplitude spectrum of the surface ground motion to be continuously displaced towards the longer periods as the distance from the source of the energy release increases.

Influence of local geology on earthquake ground motion

As a simplified approach for estimating theoretically the influence of local subsoils upon the ground motion during an earthquake, the problem of an idealized layered system subjected to vertically incident plane body waves was studied. Both the technique of steady-state analysis and the technique of transient analysis have been used to analyze the problem.

In the steady-state analysis, a recursion formula has been derived for obtaining the response of a layered system to sinusoidally steady-state input. Several conclusions are drawn concerning the nature of the amplification spectrum of a nonviscous layered system having its layer stiffnesses increasing with depth. Numerical examples are given to demonstrate the effect of layer parameters on the amplification spectrum of a layered system.

In the transient analysis, two modified shear beam models have been established for obtaining approximately the response of a layered system to earthquake-like excitation. The method of continuous modal analysis was adopted for approximate analysis of the models, with energy dissipation in the layers, if any, taken into account. Numerical examples are given to demonstrate the accuracy of the models and the effect of a layered system in modifying the input motion.

Conditions are established, under which the theory is applicable to predict the influence of local subsoils on the ground motion during an earthquake. To demonstrate the applicability of the models to actual cases, three examples of actually recorded earthquake events are examined. It is concluded that significant modification of the incoming seismic waves, as predicted by the theory, is likely to occur in well defined soft subsoils during an earthquake, provided that certain conditions concerning the nature of the incoming seismic waves are satisfied.