Formation of jets by implusive acceleration of a curved free surface

The sudden axial acceleration of a column of liquid bounded at one end by a concave free surface has been found, experimentally, to produce a jet which issues from the free surface with a speed several times that imparted to the column.

Theoretical approximations to such flows, valid for small time, are formulated subject to the assumption that the fluid is inviscid and incompressible. In a special two-dimensional case, it is found that, for vanishingly small time, the velocity at the point on the free surface from which the jet emanates is π/2 times the velocity imparted to the column. The solutions to several problems in two and three dimensions assuming that the initial curvature of the free surface is small, lead to values for this ratio dependent upon the curvature—the initial velocity in the case of axial symmetry exceeding that of the analogous two-dimensional problem by approximately 25%.

Experiments conducted upon the phenomenon give values systematically in excess of those predicted by the theory, although theory and experiment are in qualitative agreement with respect to the displacement of the free surface. It is suggested that the discrepancy is attributable to effects of finite curvature having been imperfectly accounted for in the axially-symmetric analysis.

Photographic materials on pp. 115, 120, and 121 are essential and will not reproduce clearly on Xerox copies. Photographic copies should be ordered.

Steady surface wave pattern in a shear flow

The subject under investigation concerns the steady surface wave patterns created by small concentrated disturbances acting on a non-uniform flow of a heavy fluid. The initial value problem of a point disturbance in a primary flow having an arbitrary velocity distribution (U(y), 0, 0) in a direction parallel to the undisturbed free surface is formulated. A geometric optics method and the classical integral transformation method are employed as two different methods of solution for this problem. Whenever necessary, the special case of linear shear (i.e. U(y) = 1+ϵy)) is chosen for the purpose of facilitating the final integration of the solution.

The asymptotic form of the solution obtained by the method of integral transforms agrees with the leading terms of the solution obtained by geometric optics when the latter is expanded in powers of small ϵ r.

The overall effect of the shear is to confine the wave field on the downstream side of the disturbance to a region which is smaller than the wave region in the case of uniform flows. If U(y) vanishes, and changes sign at a critical plane y = y_cr (e.g. ϵy_cr = -1 for the case of linear shear), then the boundary of this asymmetric wave field approaches this critical vertical plane. On this boundary the wave crests are all perpendicular to the x-axis, indicating that waves are reflected at this boundary.

Inside the wave field, as in the case of a point disturbance in a uniform primary flow, there exist two wave systems. The loci of constant phases (such as the crests or troughs) of these wave systems are not symmetric with respect to the x-axis. The geometric optics method and the integral transform method yield the same result of these loci for the special case of U(y) = U_o(1 + ϵy) and for large Kr (ϵr ˂˂ 1 ˂˂ Kr).

An expression for the variation of the amplitude of the waves in the wave field is obtained by the integral transform method. This is in the form of an expansion in small ϵr. The zeroth order is identical to the expression for the uniform stream case and is thus not applicable near the boundary of the wave region because it becomes infinite in that neighborhood. Throughout this investigation the viscous terms in the equations of motion are neglected, a reasonable assumption which can be justified when the wavelengths of the resulting waves are sufficiently large.

I. Rigid body penetration into brittle materials. II. Phase change effect on shock wave propagation

Part I.

We have developed a technique for measuring the depth time history of rigid body penetration into brittle materials (hard rocks and concretes) under a deceleration of ~ 10⁵ g. The technique includes bar-coded projectile, sabot-projectile separation, detection and recording systems. Because the technique can give very dense data on penetration depth time history, penetration velocity can be deduced. Error analysis shows that the technique has a small intrinsic error of ~ 3-4 % in time during penetration, and 0.3 to 0.7 mm in penetration depth. A series of 4140 steel projectile penetration into G-mixture mortar targets have been conducted using the Caltech 40 mm gas/ powder gun in the velocity range of 100 to 500 m/s.

We report, for the first time, the whole depth-time history of rigid body penetration into brittle materials (the G-mixture mortar) under 10⁵ g deceleration. Based on the experimental results, including penetration depth time history, damage of recovered target and projectile materials and theoretical analysis, we find:

1. Target materials are damaged via compacting in the region in front of a projectile and via brittle radial and lateral crack propagation in the region surrounding the penetration path. The results suggest that expected cracks in front of penetrators may be stopped by a comminuted region that is induced by wave propagation. Aggregate erosion on the projectile lateral surface is < 20% of the final penetration depth. This result suggests that the effect of lateral friction on the penetration process can be ignored.

2. Final penetration depth, P_max, is linearly scaled with initial projectile energy per unit cross-section area, e_s , when targets are intact after impact. Based on the experimental data on the mortar targets, the relation is P_max(mm) 1.15e_s (J/mm² ) + 16.39.

3. Estimation of the energy needed to create an unit penetration volume suggests that the average pressure acting on the target material during penetration is ~ 10 to 20 times higher than the unconfined strength of target materials under quasi-static loading, and 3 to 4 times higher than the possible highest pressure due to friction and material strength and its rate dependence. In addition, the experimental data show that the interaction between cracks and the target free surface significantly affects the penetration process.

4. Based on the fact that the penetration duration, t_max, increases slowly with e_s and does not depend on projectile radius approximately, the dependence of t_max on projectile length is suggested to be described by t_max(μs) = 2.08e_s (J/mm² + 349.0 x m/(πR²), in which m is the projectile mass in grams and R is the projectile radius in mm. The prediction from this relation is in reasonable agreement with the experimental data for different projectile lengths.

5. Deduced penetration velocity time histories suggest that whole penetration history is divided into three stages: (1) An initial stage in which the projectile velocity change is small due to very small contact area between the projectile and target materials; (2) A steady penetration stage in which projectile velocity continues to decrease smoothly; (3) A penetration stop stage in which projectile deceleration jumps up when velocities are close to a critical value of ~ 35 m/s.

6. Deduced averaged deceleration, a, in the steady penetration stage for projectiles with same dimensions is found to be a(g) = 192.4v + 1.89 x 10⁴, where v is initial projectile velocity in m/s. The average pressure acting on target materials during penetration is estimated to be very comparable to shock wave pressure.

7. A similarity of penetration process is found to be described by a relation between normalized penetration depth, P/P_max, and normalized penetration time, t/t_max, as P/P_max = f(t/t_max, where f is a function of t/t_max. After f(t/t_max is determined using experimental data for projectiles with 150 mm length, the penetration depth time history for projectiles with 100 mm length predicted by this relation is in good agreement with experimental data. This similarity also predicts that average deceleration increases with decreasing projectile length, that is verified by the experimental data.

8. Based on the penetration process analysis and the present data, a first principle model for rigid body penetration is suggested. The model incorporates the models for contact area between projectile and target materials, friction coefficient, penetration stop criterion, and normal stress on the projectile surface. The most important assumptions used in the model are: (1) The penetration process can be treated as a series of impact events, therefore, pressure normal to projectile surface is estimated using the Hugoniot relation of target material; (2) The necessary condition for penetration is that the pressure acting on target materials is not lower than the Hugoniot elastic limit; (3) The friction force on projectile lateral surface can be ignored due to cavitation during penetration. All the parameters involved in the model are determined based on independent experimental data. The penetration depth time histories predicted from the model are in good agreement with the experimental data.

9. Based on planar impact and previous quasi-static experimental data, the strain rate dependence of the mortar compressive strength is described by σ_f/σ⁰_f = exp(0.0905(log(έ/έ_0) ^1.14, in the strain rate range of 10^-7/s to 10³/s (σ⁰_f and έ are reference compressive strength and strain rate, respectively). The non-dispersive Hugoniot elastic wave in the G-mixture has an amplitude of ~ 0.14 GPa and a velocity of ~ 4.3 km/s.

Part II.

Stress wave profiles in vitreous GeO₂ were measured using piezoresistance gauges in the pressure range of 5 to 18 GPa under planar plate and spherical projectile impact. Experimental data show that the response of vitreous GeO₂ to planar shock loading can be divided into three stages: (1) A ramp elastic precursor has peak amplitude of 4 GPa and peak particle velocity of 333 m/s. Wave velocity decreases from initial longitudinal elastic wave velocity of 3.5 km/s to 2.9 km/s at 4 GPa; (2) A ramp wave with amplitude of 2.11 GPa follows the precursor when peak loading pressure is 8.4 GPa. Wave velocity drops to the value below bulk wave velocity in this stage; (3) A shock wave achieving final shock state forms when peak pressure is > 6 GPa. The Hugoniot relation is D = 0.917 + 1.711u (km/s) using present data and the data of Jackson and Ahrens [1979] when shock wave pressure is between 6 and 40 GPa for ρ₀ = 3.655 gj cm³ . Based on the present data, the phase change from 4-fold to 6-fold coordination of Ge⁺⁴ with O^-2 in vitreous GeO₂ occurs in the pressure range of 4 to 15 ± 1 GPa under planar shock loading. Comparison of the shock loading data for fused SiO₂ to that on vitreous GeO₂ demonstrates that transformation to the rutile structure in both media are similar. The Hugoniots of vitreous GeO₂ and fused SiO₂ are found to coincide approximately if pressure in fused SiO₂ is scaled by the ratio of fused SiO₂to vitreous GeO₂ density. This result, as well as the same structure, provides the basis for considering vitreous Ge0₂ as an analogous material to fused SiO₂ under shock loading. Experimental results from the spherical projectile impact demonstrate: (1) The supported elastic shock in fused SiO₂ decays less rapidly than a linear elastic wave when elastic wave stress amplitude is higher than 4 GPa. The supported elastic shock in vitreous GeO₂ decays faster than a linear elastic wave; (2) In vitreous GeO₂ , unsupported shock waves decays with peak pressure in the phase transition range (4-15 GPa) with propagation distance, x, as α 1/x^-3.35 , close to the prediction of Chen et al. [1998]. Based on a simple analysis on spherical wave propagation, we find that the different decay rates of a spherical elastic wave in fused SiO₂ and vitreous GeO₂ is predictable on the base of the compressibility variation with stress under one-dimensional strain condition in the two materials.

I. Impact spallation experiments: fracture patterns and spall velocities. II. Craters in carbonate rocks: an electron paramagnetic resonance analysis of shock damage

This work is divided into two independent papers.

PAPER 1.

Spall velocities were measured for nine experimental impacts into San Marcos gabbro targets. Impact velocities ranged from 1 to 6.5 km/sec. Projectiles were iron, aluminum, lead, and basalt of varying sizes. The projectile masses ranged from a 4 g lead bullet to a 0.04 g aluminum sphere. The velocities of fragments were measured from high-speed films taken of the events. The maximum spall velocity observed was 30 m/sec, or 0.56 percent of the 5.4 km/sec impact velocity. The measured velocities were compared to the spall velocities predicted by the spallation model of Melosh (1984). The compatibility between the spallation model for large planetary impacts and the results of these small scale experiments are considered in detail.

The targets were also bisected to observe the pattern of internal fractures. A series of fractures were observed, whose location coincided with the boundary between rock subjected to the peak shock compression and a theoretical "near surface zone" predicted by the spallation model. Thus, between this boundary and the free surface, the target material should receive reduced levels of compressive stress as compared to the more highly shocked region below.

PAPER 2.

Carbonate samples from the nuclear explosion crater, OAK, and a terrestrial impact crater, Meteor Crater, were analyzed for shock damage using electron para- magnetic resonance, EPR. The first series of samples for OAK Crater were obtained from six boreholes within the crater, and the second series were ejecta samples recovered from the crater floor. The degree of shock damage in the carbonate material was assessed by comparing the sample spectra to spectra of Solenhofen limestone, which had been shocked to known pressures.

The results of the OAK borehole analysis have identified a thin zone of highly shocked carbonate material underneath the crater floor. This zone has a maximum depth of approximately 200 ft below sea floor at the ground zero borehole and decreases in depth towards the crater rim. A layer of highly shocked material is also found on the surface in the vicinity of the reference bolehole, located outside the crater. This material could represent a fallout layer. The ejecta samples have experienced a range of shock pressures.

It was also demonstrated that the EPR technique is feasible for the study of terrestrial impact craters formed in carbonate bedrock. The results for the Meteor Crater analysis suggest a slight degree of shock damage present in the β member of the Kaibab Formation exposed in the crater walls.

Part I - The radiation of elastic waves from a spherical cavity in a half space. Part II - Precision determination of focal depths and epicenters of earthquakes.

Part I: The dynamic response of an elastic half space to an explosion in a buried spherical cavity is investigated by two methods. The first is implicit, and the final expressions for the displacements at the free surface are given as a series of spherical wave functions whose coefficients are solutions of an infinite set of linear equations. The second method is based on Schwarz's technique to solve boundary value problems, and leads to an iterative solution, starting with the known expression for the point source in a half space as first term. The iterative series is transformed into a system of two integral equations, and into an equivalent set of linear equations. In this way, a dual interpretation of the physical phenomena is achieved. The systems are treated numerically and the Rayleigh wave part of the displacements is given in the frequency domain. Several comparisons with simpler cases are analyzed to show the effect of the cavity radius-depth ratio on the spectra of the displacements.

Part II: A high speed, large capacity, hypocenter location program has been written for an IBM 7094 computer. Important modifications to the standard method of least squares have been incorporated in it. Among them are a new way to obtain the depth of shocks from the normal equations, and the computation of variable travel times for the local shocks in order to account automatically for crustal variations. The multiregional travel times, largely based upon the investigations of the United States Geological Survey, are confronted with actual traverses to test their validity.

It is shown that several crustal phases provide control enough to obtain good solutions in depth for nuclear explosions, though not all the recording stations are in the region where crustal corrections are considered. The use of the European travel times, to locate the French nuclear explosion of May 1962 in the Sahara, proved to be more adequate than previous work.

A simpler program, with manual crustal corrections, is used to process the Kern County series of aftershocks, and a clearer picture of tectonic mechanism of the White Wolf fault is obtained.

Shocks in the California region are processed automatically and statistical frequency-depth and energy depth curves are discussed in relation to the tectonics of the area.

A fully-nonlocal energy-based formulation and high-performance realization of the quasicontinuum method

The quasicontinuum (QC) method was introduced to coarse-grain crystalline atomic ensembles in order to bridge the scales from individual atoms to the micro- and mesoscales. Though many QC formulations have been proposed with varying characteristics and capabilities, a crucial cornerstone of all QC techniques is the concept of summation rules, which attempt to efficiently approximate the total Hamiltonian of a crystalline atomic ensemble by a weighted sum over a small subset of atoms. In this work we propose a novel, fully-nonlocal, energy-based formulation of the QC method with support for legacy and new summation rules through a general energy-sampling scheme. Our formulation does not conceptually differentiate between atomistic and coarse-grained regions and thus allows for seamless bridging without domain-coupling interfaces. Within this structure, we introduce a new class of summation rules which leverage the affine kinematics of this QC formulation to most accurately integrate thermodynamic quantities of interest. By comparing this new class of summation rules to commonly-employed rules through analysis of energy and spurious force errors, we find that the new rules produce no residual or spurious force artifacts in the large-element limit under arbitrary affine deformation, while allowing us to seamlessly bridge to full atomistics. We verify that the new summation rules exhibit significantly smaller force artifacts and energy approximation errors than all comparable previous summation rules through a comprehensive suite of examples with spatially non-uniform QC discretizations in two and three dimensions. Due to the unique structure of these summation rules, we also use the new formulation to study scenarios with large regions of free surface, a class of problems previously out of reach of the QC method. Lastly, we present the key components of a high-performance, distributed-memory realization of the new method, including a novel algorithm for supporting unparalleled levels of deformation. Overall, this new formulation and implementation allows us to efficiently perform simulations containing an unprecedented number of degrees of freedom with low approximation error.

Turbulent buoyant jets into stratified or flowing ambient fluids

Theoretical and experimental studies were made on two classes of buoyant jet problems, namely:

1) an inclined, round buoyant yet in a stagnant environment with linear density-stratification;

2) a round buoyant jet in a uniform cross stream of homogenous density.

Using the integral technique of analysis, assuming similarity, predictions can be made for jet trajectory, widths, and dilution ratios, in a density-stratified or flowing environment. Such information is of great importance in the design of disposal systems for sewage effluent into the ocean or waste gases into the atmosphere.

The present study of a buoyant jet in a stagnant environment has extended the Morton type of analysis to cover the effect of the initial angle of discharge. Numerical solutions have been presented for a range of initial conditions. Laboratory experiments were conducted for photographic observations of the trajectories of dyed jets. In general the observed jet forms agreed well with the calculated trajectories and nominal half widths when the value of the entrainment coefficient was taken to be α = 0.082, as previously suggested by Morton.

The problem of a buoyant jet in a uniform cross stream was analyzed by assuming an entrainment mechanism based upon the vector difference between the characteristic jet velocity and the ambient velocity. The effect of the unbalanced pressure field on the sides of the jet flow was approximated by a gross drag term. Laboratory flume experiments with sinking jets which are directly analogous to buoyant jets were performed. Salt solutions were injected into fresh water at the free surface in a flume. The jet trajectories, dilution ratios and jet half widths were determined by conductivity measurements. The entrainment coefficient, α, and drag coefficient, C_d, were found from the observed jet trajectories and dilution ratios. In the ten cases studied where jet Froude number ranged from 10 to 80 and velocity ratio (jet: current) K from 4 to 16, α varied from 0.4 to 0.5 and C_d from 1.7 to 0.1. The jet mixing motion for distance within 250D was found to be dominated by the self-generated turbulence, rather than the free-stream turbulence. Similarity of concentration profiles has also been discussed.

The unsteady forces on slender delta wing hydrofoils oscillating in heave

The investigations described herein are both experimental and theoretical. An experimental technique is described by which the models tested could be oscillated sinusoidally in heave. The apparatus used to gather the unsteady lift, drag and pitching moment data is also described.

The models tested were two flat delta wings with apex angles of 15° and 30° and they had sharp leading edges to insure flow separation. The models were fabricated from 0.25 inch aluminum plate and were approximately one foot in length.

Three distinct types of flow were investigated: 1) fully wetted, 2) ventilated and 3) planing. The experimental data are compared with existing theories for steady motions in the case of fully wetted delta wings. Ventilation measurements, made only for the 30° model at 20° angle of attack, of lift and drag are presented.

A correction of the theory proposed by M.P. Tulin for high speed planing of slender bodies is presented and it is extended to unsteady motions. This is compared to the experimental measurements made at 6° and 12° angle of attack for the two models previously described.

This is the first extensive measurement of unsteady drag for any shape wing, the first measurement of unsteady planing forces, the first quantitative documentation of unstable oscillations near a free surface, and the first measurements of the unsteady forces on ventilated delta wings. The results of these investigations, both theoretical and experimental, are discussed and further investigations suggested.

Nearly free molecular heat transfer from a sphere

Consider a sphere immersed in a rarefied monatomic gas with zero mean flow. The distribution function of the molecules at infinity is chosen to be a Maxwellian. The boundary condition at the body is diffuse reflection with perfect accommodation to the surface temperature. The microscopic flow of particles about the sphere is modeled kinetically by the Boltzmann equation with the Krook collision term. Appropriate normalizations in the near and far fields lead to a perturbation solution of the problem, expanded in terms of the ratio of body diameter to mean free path (inverse Knudsen number). The distribution function is found directly in each region, and intermediate matching is demonstrated. The heat transfer from the sphere is then calculated as an integral over this distribution function in the inner region. Final results indicate that the heat transfer may at first increase over its free flow value before falling to the continuum level.

On-chip integrated label-free optical biosensing

This thesis investigates the design and implementation of a label-free optical biosensing system utilizing a robust on-chip integrated platform. The goal has been to transition optical micro-resonator based label-free biosensing from a laborious and delicate laboratory demonstration to a tool for the analytical life scientist. This has been pursued along four avenues: (1) the design and fabrication of high-$Q$ integrated planar microdisk optical resonators in silicon nitride on silica, (2) the demonstration of a high speed optoelectronic swept frequency laser source, (3) the development and integration of a microfluidic analyte delivery system, and (4) the introduction of a novel differential measurement technique for the reduction of environmental noise.

The optical part of this system combines the results of two major recent developments in the field of optical and laser physics: the high-$Q$ optical resonator and the phase-locked electronically controlled swept-frequency semiconductor laser. The laser operates at a wavelength relevant for aqueous sensing, and replaces expensive and fragile mechanically-tuned laser sources whose frequency sweeps have limited speed, accuracy and reliability. The high-$Q$ optical resonator is part of a monolithic unit with an integrated optical waveguide, and is fabricated using standard semiconductor lithography methods. Monolithic integration makes the system significantly more robust and flexible compared to current, fragile embodiments that rely on the precarious coupling of fragile optical fibers to resonators. The silicon nitride on silica material system allows for future manifestations at shorter wavelengths. The sensor also includes an integrated microfluidic flow cell for precise and low volume delivery of analytes to the resonator surface. We demonstrate the refractive index sensing action of the system as well as the specific and nonspecific adsorption of proteins onto the resonator surface with high sensitivity. Measurement challenges due to environmental noise that hamper system performance are discussed and a differential sensing measurement is proposed, implemented, and demonstrated resulting in the restoration of a high performance sensing measurement.

The instrument developed in this work represents an adaptable and cost-effective platform capable of various sensitive, label-free measurements relevant to the study of biophysics, biomolecular interactions, cell signaling, and a wide range of other life science fields. Further development is necessary for it to be capable of binding assays, or thermodynamic and kinetics measurements; however, this work has laid the foundation for the demonstration of these applications.

Quantum Interference and Entanglement of Surface Plasmons

Surface plasma waves arise from the collective oscillations of billions of electrons at the surface of a metal in unison. The simplest way to quantize these waves is by direct analogy to electromagnetic fields in free space, with the surface plasmon, the quantum of the surface plasma wave, playing the same role as the photon. It follows that surface plasmons should exhibit all of the same quantum phenomena that photons do, including quantum interference and entanglement.

Unlike photons, however, surface plasmons suffer strong losses that arise from the scattering of free electrons from other electrons, phonons, and surfaces. Under some circumstances, these interactions might also cause “pure dephasing,” which entails a loss of coherence without absorption. Quantum descriptions of plasmons usually do not account for these effects explicitly, and sometimes ignore them altogether. In light of this extra microscopic complexity, it is necessary for experiments to test quantum models of surface plasmons.

In this thesis, I describe two such tests that my collaborators and I performed. The first was a plasmonic version of the Hong-Ou-Mandel experiment, in which we observed two-particle quantum interference between plasmons with a visibility of 93 ± 1%. This measurement confirms that surface plasmons faithfully reproduce this effect with the same visibility and mutual coherence time, to within measurement error, as in the photonic case.

The second experiment demonstrated path entanglement between surface plasmons with a visibility of 95 ± 2%, confirming that a path-entangled state can indeed survive without measurable decoherence. This measurement suggests that elastic scattering mechanisms of the type that might cause pure dephasing must have been weak enough not to significantly perturb the state of the metal under the experimental conditions we investigated.

These two experiments add quantum interference and path entanglement to a growing list of quantum phenomena that surface plasmons appear to exhibit just as clearly as photons, confirming the predictions of the simplest quantum models.