Dense, efficient chip-to-chip communication at the extremes of computing

The scalability of CMOS technology has driven computation into a diverse range of applications across the power consumption, performance and size spectra. Communication is a necessary adjunct to computation, and whether this is to push data from node-to-node in a high-performance computing cluster or from the receiver of wireless link to a neural stimulator in a biomedical implant, interconnect can take up a significant portion of the overall system power budget. Although a single interconnect methodology cannot address such a broad range of systems efficiently, there are a number of key design concepts that enable good interconnect design in the age of highly-scaled CMOS: an emphasis on highly-digital approaches to solving ‘analog’ problems, hardware sharing between links as well as between different functions (such as equalization and synchronization) in the same link, and adaptive hardware that changes its operating parameters to mitigate not only variation in the fabrication of the link, but also link conditions that change over time. These concepts are demonstrated through the use of two design examples, at the extremes of the power and performance spectra.

A novel all-digital clock and data recovery technique for high-performance, high density interconnect has been developed. Two independently adjustable clock phases are generated from a delay line calibrated to 2 UI. One clock phase is placed in the middle of the eye to recover the data, while the other is swept across the delay line. The samples produced by the two clocks are compared to generate eye information, which is used to determine the best phase for data recovery. The functions of the two clocks are swapped after the data phase is updated; this ping-pong action allows an infinite delay range without the use of a PLL or DLL. The scheme's generalized sampling and retiming architecture is used in a sharing technique that saves power and area in high-density interconnect. The eye information generated is also useful for tuning an adaptive equalizer, circumventing the need for dedicated adaptation hardware.

On the other side of the performance/power spectra, a capacitive proximity interconnect has been developed to support 3D integration of biomedical implants. In order to integrate more functionality while staying within size limits, implant electronics can be embedded onto a foldable parylene (‘origami’) substrate. Many of the ICs in an origami implant will be placed face-to-face with each other, so wireless proximity interconnect can be used to increase communication density while decreasing implant size, as well as facilitate a modular approach to implant design, where pre-fabricated parylene-and-IC modules are assembled together on-demand to make custom implants. Such an interconnect needs to be able to sense and adapt to changes in alignment. The proposed array uses a TDC-like structure to realize both communication and alignment sensing within the same set of plates, increasing communication density and eliminating the need to infer link quality from a separate alignment block. In order to distinguish the communication plates from the nearby ground plane, a stimulus is applied to the transmitter plate, which is rectified at the receiver to bias a delay generation block. This delay is in turn converted into a digital word using a TDC, providing alignment information.

Transceiver designs and analysis for LTI, LTV and broadcast channels - new matrix decompositions and majorization theory

Signal processing techniques play important roles in the design of digital communication systems. These include information manipulation, transmitter signal processing, channel estimation, channel equalization and receiver signal processing. By interacting with communication theory and system implementing technologies, signal processing specialists develop efficient schemes for various communication problems by wisely exploiting various mathematical tools such as analysis, probability theory, matrix theory, optimization theory, and many others. In recent years, researchers realized that multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) channel models are applicable to a wide range of different physical communications channels. Using the elegant matrix-vector notations, many MIMO transceiver (including the precoder and equalizer) design problems can be solved by matrix and optimization theory. Furthermore, the researchers showed that the majorization theory and matrix decompositions, such as singular value decomposition (SVD), geometric mean decomposition (GMD) and generalized triangular decomposition (GTD), provide unified frameworks for solving many of the point-to-point MIMO transceiver design problems.

In this thesis, we consider the transceiver design problems for linear time invariant (LTI) flat MIMO channels, linear time-varying narrowband MIMO channels, flat MIMO broadcast channels, and doubly selective scalar channels. Additionally, the channel estimation problem is also considered. The main contributions of this dissertation are the development of new matrix decompositions, and the uses of the matrix decompositions and majorization theory toward the practical transmit-receive scheme designs for transceiver optimization problems. Elegant solutions are obtained, novel transceiver structures are developed, ingenious algorithms are proposed, and performance analyses are derived.

The first part of the thesis focuses on transceiver design with LTI flat MIMO channels. We propose a novel matrix decomposition which decomposes a complex matrix as a product of several sets of semi-unitary matrices and upper triangular matrices in an iterative manner. The complexity of the new decomposition, generalized geometric mean decomposition (GGMD), is always less than or equal to that of geometric mean decomposition (GMD). The optimal GGMD parameters which yield the minimal complexity are derived. Based on the channel state information (CSI) at both the transmitter (CSIT) and receiver (CSIR), GGMD is used to design a butterfly structured decision feedback equalizer (DFE) MIMO transceiver which achieves the minimum average mean square error (MSE) under the total transmit power constraint. A novel iterative receiving detection algorithm for the specific receiver is also proposed. For the application to cyclic prefix (CP) systems in which the SVD of the equivalent channel matrix can be easily computed, the proposed GGMD transceiver has K/log_2(K) times complexity advantage over the GMD transceiver, where K is the number of data symbols per data block and is a power of 2. The performance analysis shows that the GGMD DFE transceiver can convert a MIMO channel into a set of parallel subchannels with the same bias and signal to interference plus noise ratios (SINRs). Hence, the average bit rate error (BER) is automatically minimized without the need for bit allocation. Moreover, the proposed transceiver can achieve the channel capacity simply by applying independent scalar Gaussian codes of the same rate at subchannels.

In the second part of the thesis, we focus on MIMO transceiver design for slowly time-varying MIMO channels with zero-forcing or MMSE criterion. Even though the GGMD/GMD DFE transceivers work for slowly time-varying MIMO channels by exploiting the instantaneous CSI at both ends, their performance is by no means optimal since the temporal diversity of the time-varying channels is not exploited. Based on the GTD, we develop space-time GTD (ST-GTD) for the decomposition of linear time-varying flat MIMO channels. Under the assumption that CSIT, CSIR and channel prediction are available, by using the proposed ST-GTD, we develop space-time geometric mean decomposition (ST-GMD) DFE transceivers under the zero-forcing or MMSE criterion. Under perfect channel prediction, the new system minimizes both the average MSE at the detector in each space-time (ST) block (which consists of several coherence blocks), and the average per ST-block BER in the moderate high SNR region. Moreover, the ST-GMD DFE transceiver designed under an MMSE criterion maximizes Gaussian mutual information over the equivalent channel seen by each ST-block. In general, the newly proposed transceivers perform better than the GGMD-based systems since the super-imposed temporal precoder is able to exploit the temporal diversity of time-varying channels. For practical applications, a novel ST-GTD based system which does not require channel prediction but shares the same asymptotic BER performance with the ST-GMD DFE transceiver is also proposed.

The third part of the thesis considers two quality of service (QoS) transceiver design problems for flat MIMO broadcast channels. The first one is the power minimization problem (min-power) with a total bitrate constraint and per-stream BER constraints. The second problem is the rate maximization problem (max-rate) with a total transmit power constraint and per-stream BER constraints. Exploiting a particular class of joint triangularization (JT), we are able to jointly optimize the bit allocation and the broadcast DFE transceiver for the min-power and max-rate problems. The resulting optimal designs are called the minimum power JT broadcast DFE transceiver (MPJT) and maximum rate JT broadcast DFE transceiver (MRJT), respectively. In addition to the optimal designs, two suboptimal designs based on QR decomposition are proposed. They are realizable for arbitrary number of users.

Finally, we investigate the design of a discrete Fourier transform (DFT) modulated filterbank transceiver (DFT-FBT) with LTV scalar channels. For both cases with known LTV channels and unknown wide sense stationary uncorrelated scattering (WSSUS) statistical channels, we show how to optimize the transmitting and receiving prototypes of a DFT-FBT such that the SINR at the receiver is maximized. Also, a novel pilot-aided subspace channel estimation algorithm is proposed for the orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) systems with quasi-stationary multi-path Rayleigh fading channels. Using the concept of a difference co-array, the new technique can construct M^2 co-pilots from M physical pilot tones with alternating pilot placement. Subspace methods, such as MUSIC and ESPRIT, can be used to estimate the multipath delays and the number of identifiable paths is up to O(M^2), theoretically. With the delay information, a MMSE estimator for frequency response is derived. It is shown through simulations that the proposed method outperforms the conventional subspace channel estimator when the number of multipaths is greater than or equal to the number of physical pilots minus one.

Electrical and optical interconnects for high-performance computing

Technology scaling has enabled drastic growth in the computational and storage capacity of integrated circuits (ICs). This constant growth drives an increasing demand for high-bandwidth communication between and within ICs. In this dissertation we focus on low-power solutions that address this demand. We divide communication links into three subcategories depending on the communication distance. Each category has a different set of challenges and requirements and is affected by CMOS technology scaling in a different manner. We start with short-range chip-to-chip links for board-level communication. Next we will discuss board-to-board links, which demand a longer communication range. Finally on-chip links with communication ranges of a few millimeters are discussed.

Electrical signaling is a natural choice for chip-to-chip communication due to efficient integration and low cost. IO data rates have increased to the point where electrical signaling is now limited by the channel bandwidth. In order to achieve multi-Gb/s data rates, complex designs that equalize the channel are necessary. In addition, a high level of parallelism is central to sustaining bandwidth growth. Decision feedback equalization (DFE) is one of the most commonly employed techniques to overcome the limited bandwidth problem of the electrical channels. A linear and low-power summer is the central block of a DFE. Conventional approaches employ current-mode techniques to implement the summer, which require high power consumption. In order to achieve low-power operation we propose performing the summation in the charge domain. This approach enables a low-power and compact realization of the DFE as well as crosstalk cancellation. A prototype receiver was fabricated in 45nm SOI CMOS to validate the functionality of the proposed technique and was tested over channels with different levels of loss and coupling. Measurement results show that the receiver can equalize channels with maximum 21dB loss while consuming about 7.5mW from a 1.2V supply. We also introduce a compact, low-power transmitter employing passive equalization. The efficacy of the proposed technique is demonstrated through implementation of a prototype in 65nm CMOS. The design achieves up to 20Gb/s data rate while consuming less than 10mW.

An alternative to electrical signaling is to employ optical signaling for chip-to-chip interconnections, which offers low channel loss and cross-talk while providing high communication bandwidth. In this work we demonstrate the possibility of building compact and low-power optical receivers. A novel RC front-end is proposed that combines dynamic offset modulation and double-sampling techniques to eliminate the need for a short time constant at the input of the receiver. Unlike conventional designs, this receiver does not require a high-gain stage that runs at the data rate, making it suitable for low-power implementations. In addition, it allows time-division multiplexing to support very high data rates. A prototype was implemented in 65nm CMOS and achieved up to 24Gb/s with less than 0.4pJ/b power efficiency per channel. As the proposed design mainly employs digital blocks, it benefits greatly from technology scaling in terms of power and area saving.

As the technology scales, the number of transistors on the chip grows. This necessitates a corresponding increase in the bandwidth of the on-chip wires. In this dissertation, we take a close look at wire scaling and investigate its effect on wire performance metrics. We explore a novel on-chip communication link based on a double-sampling architecture and dynamic offset modulation technique that enables low power consumption and high data rates while achieving high bandwidth density in 28nm CMOS technology. The functionality of the link is demonstrated using different length minimum-pitch on-chip wires. Measurement results show that the link achieves up to 20Gb/s of data rate (12.5Gb/s/$\mu$m) with better than 136fJ/b of power efficiency.

Injection Locked Clocking and Transmitter Equalization Techniques for Chip to Chip Interconnects

Semiconductor technology scaling has enabled drastic growth in the computational capacity of integrated circuits (ICs). This constant growth drives an increasing demand for high bandwidth communication between ICs. Electrical channel bandwidth has not been able to keep up with this demand, making I/O link design more challenging. Interconnects which employ optical channels have negligible frequency dependent loss and provide a potential solution to this I/O bandwidth problem. Apart from the type of channel, efficient high-speed communication also relies on generation and distribution of multi-phase, high-speed, and high-quality clock signals. In the multi-gigahertz frequency range, conventional clocking techniques have encountered several design challenges in terms of power consumption, skew and jitter. Injection-locking is a promising technique to address these design challenges for gigahertz clocking. However, its small locking range has been a major contributor in preventing its ubiquitous acceptance.

In the first part of this dissertation we describe a wideband injection locking scheme in an LC oscillator. Phase locked loop (PLL) and injection locking elements are combined symbiotically to achieve wide locking range while retaining the simplicity of the latter. This method does not require a phase frequency detector or a loop filter to achieve phase lock. A mathematical analysis of the system is presented and the expression for new locking range is derived. A locking range of 13.4 GHz–17.2 GHz (25%) and an average jitter tracking bandwidth of up to 400 MHz are measured in a high-Q LC oscillator. This architecture is used to generate quadrature phases from a single clock without any frequency division. It also provides high frequency jitter filtering while retaining the low frequency correlated jitter essential for forwarded clock receivers.

To improve the locking range of an injection locked ring oscillator; QLL (Quadrature locked loop) is introduced. The inherent dynamics of injection locked quadrature ring oscillator are used to improve its locking range from 5% (7-7.4GHz) to 90% (4-11GHz). The QLL is used to generate accurate clock phases for a four channel optical receiver using a forwarded clock at quarter-rate. The QLL drives an injection locked oscillator (ILO) at each channel without any repeaters for local quadrature clock generation. Each local ILO has deskew capability for phase alignment. The optical-receiver uses the inherent frequency to voltage conversion provided by the QLL to dynamically body bias its devices. A wide locking range of the QLL helps to achieve a reliable data-rate of 16-32Gb/s and adaptive body biasing aids in maintaining an ultra-low power consumption of 153pJ/bit.

From the optical receiver we move on to discussing a non-linear equalization technique for a vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) based optical transmitter, to enable low-power, high-speed optical transmission. A non-linear time domain optical model of the VCSEL is built and evaluated for accuracy. The modelling shows that, while conventional FIR-based pre-emphasis works well for LTI electrical channels, it is not optimum for the non-linear optical frequency response of the VCSEL. Based on the simulations of the model an optimum equalization methodology is derived. The equalization technique is used to achieve a data-rate of 20Gb/s with power efficiency of 0.77pJ/bit.