Ensayos acelerados de fiabilidad de células solares de concentración

SUMMARY Concentration Photovoltaic Systems (CPV) have been proposed as an alternative to conventional systems. During the last years, there has been a boom of the CPV industry caused by the technological progress in all the elements of the system. and mainly caused by the use of multijunction solar cells based on III-V semiconductors, with efficiencies exceeding to 43%. III-V solar cells have been used with high reliability results in a great number of space missions without concentration. However, there are no previous results regarding their reliability in concentration terrestrial applications, where the working conditions are completely different. This lack of experience, together with the important industrial interest, has generated the need to evaluate the reliability of the cells. For this reason, nowadays there are several research centers around the undertaking this task. The evaluation of the reliability of this type of devices by means of accelerated tests is especially problematic when they work at medium or high concentration, because it is practically impossible to emulate real working conditions of the cell inside climatic chambers. In fact, as far as we know, the results that appear in this Thesis are the first estimating the Activation Energy of the failure mechanism involved, as well as the warranty of the III-V concentrator solar cells tested here. To evaluate the reliability of III-V very high concentrator solar cells by means of accelerated tests, a variety of activities, described in this Thesis have been carried out. The First Part of the memory presents the theoretical part of the Doctoral Thesis. After the Introduction, chapter 2 presents the state of the art in degradation and reliability of CPV systems and solar cells. Chapter 3 introduces some reliability definitions and the application of specific statistical functions to the evaluation of the reliability and parameters. From these functions, important parameters will be calculated to be used later in the experimental results of Thesis. The Second Part of the memory contains the experimental. Chapter 4 shows the types of accelerated tests and the main goals pursuit with them when carried out over CPV systems and solar cells. In order to evaluate quantitatively the reliability of the III-V concentrator solar cells used in these tests, some modifications have been introduced which discussion will be tackled here. Based on this analysis the working plan of the tests carried out in this Doctoral Thesis is presented. Chapter 5 presents a new methodology as well as the necessary instrumentation to carry out the tests described here. This new methodology takes into account the adaptation, improvement and novel techniques needed to test concentrator solar cells. The core of this memory is chapter 6, which presents the results of the characterization of the cells during the accelerated life tests and the analysis of the aforementioned results with the purpose of getting quantitative values of reliability in real working conditions. The acceleration factor of the accelerated life tests, under nominal working conditions has been calculated. Accordingly, the validity of the methodology as well as the calculations based on the reliability assessment, have also been demonstrated. Finally, quantitative values of degradation, reliability and warranty of the solar cells under field nominal working conditions have been calculated. With the development of this Doctoral Thesis the reliability of very high concentrator GaAs solar cells of small area has been evaluated. It is very interesting to generalize the procedures described up to this point to III-V multijunction solar cells of greater area. Therefore, chapter 7 develops this generalization and introduces also a useful thermal modeling by means of finite elements of the test cells’ circuits. In the last chapter, the summary of the results and the main contributions of this Thesis are outlined and future research activities are identified. RESUMEN Los Sistemas Fotovoltaicos de Concentración (SFC) han sido propuestos como una alternativa a los sistemas convencionales de generación de energía. Durante los últimos años ha habido un auge de los SFC debido a las mejoras tecnológicas en todos los elementos del sistema, y principalmente por el uso de células multiunión III-V que superan el 43% de rendimiento. Las células solares III-V han sido utilizadas con elevada fiabilidad en aplicaciones espaciales sin concentración, pero no existe experiencia de su fiabilidad en ambiente terrestre a altos niveles de concentración solar. Esta falta de experiencia junto al gran interés industrial ha generado la necesidad de evaluar la fiabilidad de las células, y actualmente hay un significativo número de centros de investigación trabajando en esta área. La evaluación de la fiabilidad de este tipo de dispositivos mediante ensayos acelerados es especialmente problemática cuando trabajan a media o alta concentración por la casi imposibilidad de emular las condiciones de trabajo reales de la célula dentro de cámaras climáticas. De hecho, que sepamos, en los resultados de esta Tesis se evalúa por primera vez la Energía de Activación del mecanismo de fallo de las células, así como la garantía en campo de las células de concentración III-V analizadas. Para evaluar la fiabilidad de células solares III-V de muy alta concentración mediante ensayos de vida acelerada se han realizado diversas actividades que han sido descritas en la memoria de la Tesis. En la Primera Parte de la memoria se presenta la parte teórica de la Tesis Doctoral. Tras la Introducción, en el capítulo 2 se muestra el estado del arte en degradación y fiabilidad de células y Sistemas Fotovoltaicos de Concentración. En el capítulo 3 se exponen de forma resumida las definiciones de fiabilidad y funciones estadísticas que se utilizan para la evaluación de la fiabilidad y sus parámetros, las cuales se emplearán posteriormente en los ensayos descritos en este Tesis. La Segunda Parte de la memoria es experimental. En el capítulo 4 se describen los tipos y objetivos de los ensayos acelerados actualmente aplicados a SFC y a las células, así como las modificaciones necesarias que permitan evaluar cuantitativamente la fiabilidad de las células solares de concentración III-V. En base a este análisis se presenta la planificación de los trabajos realizados en esta Tesis Doctoral. A partir de esta planificación y debido a la necesidad de adaptar, mejorar e innovar las técnicas de ensayos de vida acelerada para una adecuada aplicación a este tipo de dispositivos, en el capítulo 5 se muestra la metodología empleada y la instrumentación necesaria para realizar los ensayos de esta Tesis Doctoral. El núcleo de la memoria es el capítulo 6, en él se presentan los resultados de caracterización de las células durante los ensayos de vida acelerada y el análisis de dichos resultados con el objetivo de obtener valores cuantitativos de fiabilidad en condiciones reales de trabajo. Se calcula el Factor de Aceleración de los ensayos acelerados con respecto a las condiciones nominales de funcionamiento a partir de la Energía de Activación obtenida, y se demuestra la validez de la metodología y cálculos empleados, que son la base de la evaluación de la fiabilidad. Finalmente se calculan valores cuantitativos de degradación, fiabilidad y garantía de las células en condiciones nominales en campo durante toda la vida de la célula. Con el desarrollo de esta Tesis Doctoral se ha evaluado la fiabilidad de células III-V de área pequeña, pero es muy interesante generalizar los procedimientos aquí desarrollados para las células III-V comerciales de área grande. Por este motivo, en el capítulo 7 se analiza dicha generalización, incluyendo el modelado térmico mediante elementos finitos de los circuitos de ensayo de las células. En el último capítulo se realiza un resume del trabajo y las aportaciones realizadas, y se identifican las líneas de trabajo a emprender en el futuro.

Advances in the modeling, characterization and reliability of concentrator multijunction solar cells

Los sistemas de concentración fotovoltaica (CPV) parecen ser una de las vías más prometedoras para generar electricidad a gran escala a precios competitivos. La investigación actual se centra en aumentar la eficiencia y la concentración de los sistemas para abaratar costes. Al mismo tiempo se investiga sobre la fiabilidad de los diferentes componentes que integran un sistema de concentración, ya que para que los sistemas de concentración sean competitivos es necesario que tengan una fiabilidad al menos similar a los sistemas basados en células de silicio. En la presente tesis doctoral se ha llevado a cabo el estudio de aspectos avanzados de células solares multi-unión diseñadas para trabajar a concentraciones ultra-altas. Para ello, se ha desarrollado un modelo circuital tridimensional distribuido con el que simular el comportamiento de las células solares triple-unión bajo distintas condiciones de funcionamiento, así mismo se ha realizado una caracterización avanzada de este tipo de células para comprender mejor su modo de operación y así poder contribuir a mejorar su eficiencia. Finalmente, se han llevado a cabo ensayos de vida acelerados en células multiunión comerciales para conocer la fiabilidad de este tipo de células solares. Para la simulación de células solares triple-unión se ha desarrollado en la presente tesis doctoral un modelo circuital tridimensinal distribuido el cuál integra una descripción completa de la unión túnel. De este modo, con el modelo desarrollado, hemos podido simular perfiles de luz sobre la célula solar que hacen que la densidad de corriente fotogenerada sea mayor a la densidad de corriente pico de la unión túnel. El modelo desarrollado también contempla la distribución lateral de corriente en las capas semiconductoras que componen y rodean la unión túnel. Por tanto, se ha podido simular y analizar el efecto que tiene sobre el funcionamiento de la célula solar que los concentradores ópticos produzcan perfiles de luz desuniformes, tanto en nivel de irradiancia como en el contenido espectral de la luz (aberración cromática). Con el objetivo de determinar cuáles son los mecanismos de recombinación que están limitando el funcionamiento de cada subcélula que integra una triple-unión, y así intentar reducirlos, se ha llevado a cabo la caracterización eléctrica de células solares monouni ón idénticas a las subcelulas de una triple-unión. También se ha determinado la curva corriente-tensión en oscuridad de las subcélulas de GaInP y GaAs de una célula dobleunión mediante la utilización de un teorema de reciprocidad electro-óptico. Finalmente, se ha analizado el impacto de los diferentes mecanismos de recombinación en el funcionamiento de la célula solar triple-unión en concentración. Por último, para determinar la fiabilidad de este tipo de células, se ha llevado a cabo un ensayo de vida acelerada en temperatura en células solares triple-unión comerciales. En la presente tesis doctoral se describe el diseño del ensayo, el progreso del mismo y los datos obtenidos tras el análisis de los resultados preliminares. Abstract Concentrator photovoltaic systems (CPV) seem to be one of the most promising ways to generate electricity at competitive prices. Nowadays, the research is focused on increasing the efficiency and the concentration of the systems in order to reduce costs. At the same time, another important area of research is the study of the reliability of the different components which make up a CPV system. In fact, in order for a CPV to be cost-effective, it should have a warranty at least similar to that of the systems based on Si solar cells. In the present thesis, we will study in depth the behavior of multijunction solar cells under ultra-high concentration. With this purpose in mind, a three-dimensional circuital distributed model which is able to simulate the behavior of triple-junction solar cells under different working conditions has been developed. Also, an advanced characterization of these solar cells has been carried out in order to better understand their behavior and thus contribute to improving efficiency. Finally, accelerated life tests have been carried out on commercial lattice-matched triple-junction solar cells in order to determine their reliability. In order to simulate triple-junction solar cells, a 3D circuital distributed model which integrates a full description of the tunnel junction has been developed. We have analyzed the behavior of the multijunction solar cell under light profiles which cause the current density photo-generated in the solar cell to be higher than the tunnel junction’s peak current density. The advanced model developed also takes into account the lateral current spreading through the semiconductor layers which constitute and surround the tunnel junction. Therefore, the effects of non-uniform light profiles, in both irradiance and the spectral content produced by the concentrators on the solar cell, have been simulated and analyzed. In order to determine which recombination mechanisms are limiting the behavior of each subcell in a triple-junction stack, and to try to reduce them when possible, an electrical characterization of single-junction solar cells that resemble the subcells in a triplejunction stack has been carried out. Also, the dark I-V curves of the GaInP and GaAs subcells in a dual-junction solar cell have been determined by using an electro-optical reciprocity theorem. Finally, the impact of the different recombination mechanisms on the behavior of the triple-junction solar cell under concentration has been analyzed. In order to determine the reliability of these solar cells, a temperature accelerated life test has been carried out on commercial triple-junction solar cells. In the present thesis, the design and the evolution of the test, as well as the data obtained from the analysis of the preliminary results, are presented.

Preliminary temperature Accelerated Life Test (ALT) on III-V commercial concentrator triple-junction solar cells

A quantitative temperature accelerated life test on sixty GaInP/GaInAs/Ge triple-junction commercial concentrator solar cells is being carried out. The final objective of this experiment is to evaluate the reliability, warranty period, and failure mechanism of high concentration solar cells in a moderate period of time. The acceleration of the degradation is realized by subjecting the solar cells at temperatures markedly higher than the nominal working temperature under a concentrator Three experiments at three different temperatures are necessary in order to obtain the acceleration factor which relates the time at the stress level with the time at nominal working conditions. . However, up to now only the test at the highest temperature has finished. Therefore, we can not provide complete reliability information but we have analyzed the life data and the failure mode of the solar cells inside the climatic chamber at the highest temperature. The failures have been all of them catastrophic. In fact, the solar cells have turned into short circuits. We have fitted the failure distribution to a two parameters Weibull function. The failures are wear-out type. We have observed that the busbar and the surrounding fingers are completely deteriorate

Instrumentación de referencia para realización automática de ensayos de fiabilidad

En todo proceso de desarrollo de un dispositivo electrónico o equipo cabe la necesidad de evaluar la fiabilidad de sus componentes, es decir, cual es el porcentaje de equipos que tras un determinado periodo de vida mantiene todas sus funcionalidades dentro de especificaciones. La evaluación de la fiabilidad mediante ensayos acelerados es la herramienta que permite una estimación de la vida del dispositivo o equipo de forma previa a su comercialización. La cuantificación de la fiabilidad es crítica para identificar los costos de un determinado periodo de garantía, y para ofrecer a los clientes el nivel de calidad deseado. El objetivo de este Proyecto Fin de Carrera, es el diseño de un sistema automático de instrumentación versátil, para la realización y caracterización de ensayos acelerados, el cual nos sirva para abordar una amplia gama de ensayos con los que evaluar la fiabilidad de los dispositivos electrónicos o equipos. Además del uso industrial donde se evaluará la fiabilidad de forma previa a la comercialización, este sistema se podrá emplear en la docencia de esta área, y fundamentalmente para la realización de ensayos acelerados en investigación de dispositivos electrónicos. La versatilidad de nuestro hardware y aplicación software es un punto a favor, ya que con este sistema de instrumentación se pueden realizar numerosos tipos de ensayos acelerados, sin el problema de tener que cambiar toda la instrumentación, cada vez que se quiera realizar otro ensayo distinto. Los componentes que se elijan para realizar el ensayo acelerado, serán sometidos a un estrés (tensión, corriente, humedad, temperatura…) y se podrá ir observando cómo envejecen, lo que nos permite evaluar la vida del dispositivo en un corto periodo, emulando sus condiciones de trabajo, además de estudiar la fiabilidad también se puede identificar como se degradan sus características principales antes del fallo. El Software utilizado en este Proyecto se ha implementado con un lenguaje de programación gráfico para instrumentación, LabVIEW. La aplicación software se explica de manera muy detallada a lo largo de la memoria, para que su uso y adaptación si fuese necesario no suponga ningún problema para el usuario. En la última parte de esta memoria se encuentra la guía de usuario y un ensayo acelerado planteado como ejemplo. Explicaremos como se han interconectado los equipos a los componentes en los que se va a realizar el ensayo y así se comprobará el correcto funcionamiento del software tomando las medidas necesarias. ABTRACT In all process of development of an electronic device or equipment, we have the need to evaluate the reliability of its components, that is to say, what percentage of equipment that after a certain period of life keeps all of its functionalities within specifications. The evaluation of reliability by means of accelerated tests is the tool that allows an estimation of the lifetime of the device or equipment prior to its marketing. The quantification of reliability is critical to identify the costs of a specific warranty period, and to offer customers the desired quality level. The objective of this Thesis is the design of an automatic very versatile instrument for the realization and characterization of accelerated tests, which will help us to address a wide range of tests to assess the reliability of the devices or electronic equipment. In addition to industrial use where test the reliability before its commercialization, use it can be used in teaching of this area, fundamentally for the realization of accelerated testing in the investigation of electronic devices. The versatility of our hardware and software implementation is a plus, given that this instrumentation system can perform numerous types of accelerated tests, without the problem to have to change everything, every time you want to make another different test. The components that will be chosen to perform the accelerated test, will be subjected to stress (voltage, current, humidity, temperature ...) and you can observe how they age, allowing us to evaluate the life of the device in a short period, emulating their working conditions. In addition to studying the reliability it can also identify how its main characteristics are degraded before failure. The software used in this Thesis has been implemented with a graphical programming language for instrumentation, LabVIEW. This software is explained in great detail throughout the Thesis, so that its use and adaptation, if necessary, will not be a problem for the user. In the last part of this memory we will expose a user guide and test that we have done. We will explain how the equipment has been interconnected to the components in which we are going to perform the test and so we will check the correct operation of the software taking the necessary measures.

Evaluation of the reliability of commercial concentrator triple-junction solar cells by means of accelerated life tests (ALT)

A temperature accelerated life test on commercial concentrator lattice-matched GaInP/GaInAs/Ge triple-junction solar cells has been carried out. The solar cells have been tested at three different temperatures: 119, 126 and 164 °C and the nominal photo-current condition (820 X) has been emulated by injecting current in darkness. All the solar cells have presented catastrophic failures. The failure distributions at the three tested temperatures have been fitted to an Arrhenius-Weibull model. An Arrhenius activation energy of 1.58 eV was determined from the fit. The main reliability functions and parameters (reliability function, instantaneous failure rate, mean time to failure, warranty time) of these solar cells at the nominal working temperature (80 °C) have been obtained. The warranty time obtained for a failure population of 5 % has been 69 years. Thus, a long-term warranty could be offered for these particular solar cells working at 820 X, 8 hours per day at 80 °C.

Evaluation of the reliability of high concentrator GaAs solar cells by means of temperature accelerated aging tests

ABSTRACT Evaluating the reliability, warranty period, and power degradation of high concentration solar cells is crucial to introducing this new technology to the market. The reliability of high concentration GaAs solar cells, as measured in temperature accelerated life tests, is described in this paper. GaAs cells were tested under high thermal accelerated conditions that emulated operation under 700 or 1050 suns over a period exceeding 10 000 h. Progressive power degradation was observed, although no catastrophic failures occurred. An Arrhenius activation energy of 1.02 eV was determined from these tests. The solar cell reliability [R(t)] under working conditions of 65°C was evaluated for different failure limits (1–10% power loss). From this reliability function, the mean time to failure and the warranty time were evaluated. Solar cell temperature appeared to be the primary determinant of reliability and warranty period, with concentration being the secondary determinant. A 30-year warranty for these 1 mm2-sized GaAs cells (manufactured according to a light emitting diode-like approach) may be offered for both cell concentrations (700 and 1050 suns) if the solar cell is operated at a working temperature of 65°C.

Preliminary temperature accelerated life test (ALT) on lattice mismatched triple-junction concentrator solar cells-on-carriers

A temperature accelerated life test on concentrator lattice mismatched Ga0.37In0.63P/Ga0.83In0.17As/Ge triple-junction solar cells-on-carrier is being carried out. The solar cells have been tested at three different temperatures: 125, 145 and 165°C and the nominal photo-current condition (500X) is emulated by injecting current in darkness. The final objective of these tests is to evaluate the reliability, warranty period, and failure mechanism of these solar cells in a moderate period of time. Up to now only the test at 165°C has finished. Therefore, we cannot provide complete reliability information, but we have carried out preliminary data and failure analysis with the current results.