Experimental and numerical investigation of effect of sawn timber dimensions in ultrasonic velocity measurements of Spanish softwoods

Ultrasonic sound velocity measurements with hand-held equipment remain due to their simplicity among the most used methods for non-destructive grading of sawn woods, yet a dedicated normalization effort with respect to strength classes for Spanish species is still required. As part of an ongoing project with the aim of definition of standard testing methods, the effect of the dimensions of commonly tested Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) timbers and equipment testing frequency on ultrasonic velocity were investigated. A dedicated full-wave finite-difference time-domain software allowed simulation of pulse propagation through timbers of representative length and section combinations. Sound velocity measurements vL were performed along the grain with the indirect method at 22 kHz and 45 kHz for grids of measurement points at specific distances. For sample sections larger than the cross-sectional wavelength ?RT, the simulated sound velocity vL converges to vL = (CL/?)0.5. For smaller square sections the sound velocity drops down to vL = (EL/?)0.5, where CL, EL and ? are the stiffness, E-modul and density, respectively. The experiments confirm a linear regression between time of flight and measurement distance even at less than two wavelength menor que2?L distance, the fitted sound speed values increased by 15% between the two tested frequencies.

Evaluation offreeze-thaw damage in concrete by ultrasonic imaging

This work studies the use of ultrasonic imaging as an evaluation tool in concrete subjected to freeze–thaw (F–T) cycles. To evaluate the damage in this deterioration process, ultrasonic velocity and attenuation images have been generated from concrete specimens with and without air-entraining agents. Two parameters have been proposed from these ultrasonic images according to our experimental setup: the non-assessable area proportion (NAAP) and a weighted average velocity in terms of the NAAP. The proposed parameters have been compared with the recommended failure criteria of the ASTM and Rilem standards, which employ ultrasonic contact measurements. The principal advantage of the use of ultrasonic images and the proposed methodology in comparison with the ultrasonic velocity measurements by contact is the possibility of detection of incipient damage caused by accelerated freeze–thaw cycles.

Caracterización no destructiva del proceso de curado en materiales cementicios

La calidad del hormigón prefabricado se determina mediante ensayos de rotura a compresión en probetas transcurridos los 28 días de curado, según establece la EHE-08. Sin embargo, en la plantas de prefabricados es necesario además saber cuándo el hormigón está listo para ser procesado (destensado, cortado, trasladado), por lo que es necesario hacer ensayos de resistencia a la compresión entre las 48 y 72 horas, este tiempo se determina a partir de la experiencia previa adquirida y depende de las condiciones de cada planta. Si las probetas no han alcanzado el valor establecido, normalmente debido a un cambio en las condiciones climatológicas o en los materiales utilizados como el tipo de cemento o agregados, la solución adoptada suele ser dejar curar el material más horas en la pista para que alcance la resistencia necesaria para ser procesado. Si sigue sin alcanzarla, lo cual sucede muy ocasionalmente, se intenta analizar cuál ha sido el motivo, pudiéndose tirar toda la producción de ese día si se comprueba que ha sido un fallo en la fabricación de la línea, y no un fallo de la probeta. Por tanto, esta metodología de control de calidad, basada en técnicas destructivas, supone dos tipos de problemas, costes y representatividad. Los métodos no destructivos que más se han aplicado para caracterizar el proceso de curado del hormigón son los ultrasónicos y la medida de la temperatura como se recoge en la bibliografía consultada. Hay diferentes modelos que permiten establecer una relación entre la temperatura y el tiempo de curado para estimar la resistencia a compresión del material, y entre la velocidad de propagación ultrasónica y la resistencia. Aunque estas relaciones no son generales, se han obtenido muy buenos resultados, ejemplo de ello es el modelo basado en la temperatura, Maturity Method, que forma parte de la norma de la ASTM C 1074 y en el mercado hay disponibles equipos comerciales (maturity meters) para medir el curado del hormigón. Además, es posible diseñar sistemas de medida de estos dos parámetros económicos y robustos; por lo cual es viable la realización de una metodología para el control de calidad del curado que pueda ser implantado en las plantas de producción de prefabricado. En este trabajo se ha desarrollado una metodología que permite estimar la resistencia a la compresión del hormigón durante el curado, la cual consta de un procedimiento para el control de calidad del prefabricado y un sistema inalámbrico de sensores para la medida de la temperatura y la velocidad ultrasónica. El procedimiento para el control de calidad permite realizar una predicción de la resistencia a compresión a partir de un modelo basado en la temperatura de curado y otros dos basados en la velocidad, método de tiempo equivalente y método lineal. El sistema inalámbrico de sensores desarrollado, WilTempUS, integra en el mismo dispositivo sensores de temperatura, humedad relativa y ultrasonidos. La validación experimental se ha realizado mediante monitorizaciones en probetas y en las líneas de prefabricados. Los resultados obtenidos con los modelos de estimación y el sistema de medida desarrollado muestran que es posible predecir la resistencia en prefabricados de hormigón en planta con errores comparables a los aceptables por norma en los ensayos de resistencia a compresión en probetas. ABSTRACT Precast concrete quality is determined by compression tests breakage on specimens after 28 days of curing, as established EHE-08. However, in the precast plants is also necessary to know when the concrete is ready to be processed (slack, cut, moved), so it is necessary to test the compressive strength between 48 and 72 hours. This time is determined from prior experience and depends on the conditions of each plant. If the samples have not reached the set value, usually due to changes in the weather conditions or in the materials used as for example the type of cement or aggregates, the solution usually adopted is to cure the material on track during more time to reach the required strength for processing. If the material still does not reach this strength, which happens very occasionally, the reason of this behavior is analyzed , being able to throw the entire production of that day if there was a failure in the manufacturing line, not a failure of the specimen. Therefore, this method of quality control, using destructive techniques, involves two kinds of problems, costs and representativeness. The most used non-destructive methods to characterize the curing process of concrete are those based on ultrasonic and temperature measurement as stated in the literature. There are different models to establish a relationship between temperature and the curing time to estimate the compressive strength of the material, and between the ultrasonic propagation velocity and the compressive strength. Although these relationships are not general, they have been very successful, for example the Maturity Method is based on the temperature measurements. This method is part of the standards established in ASTM C 1074 and there are commercial equipments available (maturity meters) in the market to measure the concrete curing. Furthermore, it is possible to design inexpensive and robust systems to measure ultrasounds and temperature. Therefore is feasible to determine a method for quality control of curing to be implanted in the precast production plants. In this work, it has been developed a methodology which allows to estimate the compressive strength of concrete during its curing process. This methodology consists of a procedure for quality control of the precast concrete and a wireless sensor network to measure the temperature and ultrasonic velocity. The procedure for quality control allows to predict the compressive strength using a model based on the curing temperature and two other models based on ultrasonic velocity, the equivalent time method and the lineal one. The wireless sensor network, WilTempUS, integrates is the same device temperature, relative humidity and ultrasonic sensors. The experimental validation has been carried out in cubic specimens and in the production plants. The results obtained with the estimation models and the measurement system developed in this thesis show that it is possible to predict the strength in precast concrete plants with errors within the limits of the standards for testing compressive strength specimens.

Effect of the pulse trajectory on ultrasonic fluid velocity measurement

In a general situation a non-uniform velocity field gives rise to a shift of the otherwise straight acoustic pulse trajectory between the transmitter and receiver transducers of a sonic anemometer. The aim of this paper is to determine the effects of trajectory shifts on the velocity as measured by the sonic anemometer. This determination has been accomplished by developing a mathematical model of the measuring process carried out by sonic anemometers; a model which includes the non-straight trajectory effect. The problem is solved by small perturbation techniques, based on the relevant small parameter of the problem, the Mach number of the reference flow, M. As part of the solution, a general analytical expression for the deviations of the computed measured speed from the nominal speed has been obtained. The correction terms of both the transit time and of the measured speed are of M 2 order in rotational velocity field. The method has been applied to three simple, paradigmatic flows: one-directional horizontal and vertical shear flows, and mixed with a uniform horizontal flow.

Measurement of velocity in rotational flows using ultrasonic anemometry: the flowmeter

In this paper a previously developed theoretical model of the measurement process performed by a transit-time ultrasonic anemometer is applied to a fluid flowing through a circular section pipe. This model considers the influence of the shift of the acoustic pulse trajectory from straight propagation due to the flow on the measured speed. The aim of this work is to estimate the errors induced in the measured velocity by the shift of the acoustic pulse trajectory. Using different duct’s flow models, laminar and turbulent regimes have been analyzed. The results show that neglecting the effect of shift of the acoustic pulse trajectory leads to flow rate measurement underestimation.

Effect of the Wake of the Transducer Supports on the Ultrasonic Anemometer Measurements

The wake produced by the structural supports of the ultrasonic anemometers (UAs)causes distortions in the velocity field in the vicinity of the sonic path. These distortions are measured by the UA, inducing errors in the determination of the mean velocity, turbulence intensity, spectrum, etc.; basic parameters to determine the effect of wind on structures. Additionally, these distortions can lead to indefinition in the calibration function of the sensors (Cuerva et al., 2004). Several wind tunnel tests have been dedicated to obtaining experimental data, from which have been developed fit models to describe and to correct these distortions (Kaimal, 1978 and Wyngaard, 1985). This work explores the effect of a vortex wake generated by the supports of an UA, on the measurement of wind speed done by this instrument. To do this, the Von Karman¿s vortex street potential model is combined with the mathematical model of the measuring process carried out by UAs developed by Franchini et al. (2007). The obtained results are the correction functions of the measured wind velocity, which depends on the geometry of the sonic anemometer and aerodynamic conditions. These results have been validated with the ones obtained in a wind tunnel test done on a single path UA, especially developed for research. The supports of this UA have been modified in order to reproduce the conditions of the theoretical model. Good agreements between experimental and theoretical results have been found.