Evaluation of the mechanical properties of self compacting concrete using current estimating models. Estimating the modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, and modulus of rupture of self compacting concrete

This study includes an analysis of the applicability of current models used for estimating the mechanical properties of conventional concrete to self-compacting concrete. The mechanical properties evaluated are: modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, and modulus of rupture. An extensive database which included the dosifications and the mechanical properties of 627 mixtures from 138 different references, was used. The models considered are: ACI, EC-2, NZS 3101:2006 (New Zealand code) and the CSA A23.3-04 (Canadian code). The precision in estimating the modulus of elasticity and tensile strength is acceptable for all models; however, all models are less precise in estimating the modulus of rupture.

Mechanical behaviour and rupture of normal and pathological human ascending aortic wall

The mechanical properties of aortic wall, both healthy and pathological, are needed in order to develop and improve diagnostic and interventional criteria, and for the development of mechanical models to assess arterial integrity. This study focuses on the mechanical behaviour and rupture conditions of the human ascending aorta and its relationship with age and pathologies. Fresh ascending aortic specimens harvested from 23 healthy donors, 12 patients with bicuspid aortic valve (BAV) and 14 with aneurysm were tensile-tested in vitro under physiological conditions. Tensile strength, stretch at failure and elbow stress were measured. The obtained results showed that age causes a major reduction in the mechanical parameters of healthy ascending aortic tissue, and that no significant differences are found between the mechanical strength of aneurysmal or BAV aortic specimens and the corresponding age-matched control group. The physiological level of the stress in the circumferential direction was also computed to assess the physiological operation range of healthy and diseased ascending aortas. The mean physiological wall stress acting on pathologic aortas was found to be far from rupture, with factors of safety (defined as the ratio of tensile strength to the mean wall stress) larger than six. In contrast, the physiological operation of pathologic vessels lays in the stiff part of the response curve, losing part of its function of damping the pressure waves from the heart.

The nitrate-afterripening crosstalk is involved in the testa rupture of sisymbryum offinales seed

The loss of seed dormancy can occur by exposing the seed at low moisture storage conditions (afterripening; AR). Since a positive GA:ABA ratio play a key role in the reactivation of germination of non-dormant seeds, it seems obvious that a remarkable effect of AR is the decreasing of both ABA levels and sensitivity, as well as the increment of GA synthesis and sensitivity. ABA levels are regulated by control both of its biosynthesis thorough the 9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase (NCED) encoding genes and its catabolism mediated mainly by ABA-8¿-hydroxylases (CYP707A). On the other hand, the last steps of the GA biosynthesis pathway should be involved to control its levels. Namely, GA20ox and GA3ox catalyzing the biosynthesis of active GA and GA2ox which catalyzes the GA inactivation. The presence of nitrate accelerates the sensu stricto germination of non-AR S. officinale seeds. Here, we demonstrate that in AR seeds nitrate also alters the expression pattern of key genes involved in ABA and GA metabolism and signalling (i.e. SoNCED6, SoNCED9, SoCYP707A2, SoABI5, SoGA3ox2, SoGA20ox6, SoGA2ox6 and SoRGL2). These results suggest that the nitrate signalling is also operative during imbibition of AR S. officinale seeds.

Membrane Dissolution in Distributed Architectures of P-Systems

The goal of this paper is twofold. Firstly, to survey in a systematic and uniform way the main results regarding the way membranes can be placed on processors in order to get a software/hardware simulation of P-Systems in a distributed environment. Secondly, we improve some results about the membrane dissolution problem, prove that it is connected, and discuss the possibility of simulating this property in the distributed model. All this yields an improvement in the system parallelism implementation since it gets an increment of the parallelism of the external communication among processors. Also, the number of processors grows in such a way that is notorious the increment of the parallelism in the application of the evolution rules and the internal communica-tionsstudy because it gets an increment of the parallelism in the application of the evolution rules and the internal communications. Proposed ideas improve previous architectures to tackle the communication bottleneck problem, such as reduction of the total time of an evolution step, increase of the number of membranes that could run on a processor and reduction of the number of processors

Mechanical properties of self-consolidating concrete using conventional concrete models

The objective of this study is to analyze the applicability of current models used for estimating the mechanical properties of conventional concrete to self-consolidating concrete (SCC). The mechanical properties evaluated are modulus of elasticity, tensile strength,and modulus of rupture. As part of the study, it was necessary to build an extensive database that included the proportions and mechanical properties of 627 mixtures from 138 different references. The same models that are currently used for calculating the mechanical properties of conventional concrete were applied to SCC to evaluate their applicability to this type of concrete. The models considered are the ACI 318, ACI 363R, and EC2. These are the most commonly used models worldwide. In the first part of the study, the overall behavior and adaptability of the different models to SCC is evaluated. The specific characterization parameters for each concrete mixture are used to calculate the various mechanical properties applying the different estimation models. The second part of the analysis consists of comparing the experimental results of all the mixtures included in the database with the estimated results to evaluate the applicability of these models to SCC. Various statistical procedures, such as regression analysis and residual analysis, are used to compare the predicted and measured properties. It terms of general applicability, the evaluated models are suitable for estimating the modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, and modulus of rupture of SCC. These models have a rather low sensitivity, however, and adjust well only to mean values. This is because the models use the compressive strength as the main variable to characterize the concrete and do not consider other variables that affect these properties.

Relations between resistance of fruit and skin characteristics in tomato varieties.

Varietal differences in physical properties of processing tomato fruits related with resistance are determined. Mean values of skin resistance and firmness are highly correlated with rupture of the fruits by quasi-static compression and by impact. Skin resistance is dependent on the features of the epidermis, studied microscopically.

Fruit firmness and skin resistance of processing tomato varieties tested in Badajoz (Spain), related to mechanical harvesting.

Determinations of resistance to damage were carried out in a total of 31 tomato varieties for processing, with the purpose of choosing the most suitable ones for mechanical harvesting. The characteristics studied include: puncture, deformation and rupture of the fruits, the ease of detachment of the fruits also being determined. Seventeen varieties were chosen, for further tests, with values 0.76 to 1.7 2 N of resistance to puncture; 3 to 9 N/mm of resistance to compression and 2.16 to 29.40 N resistance to detachment.

Arabidopsis thaliana bZIP44: a transcription factor affecting seed germination and expression of the mannanase-encoding gene AtMAN7.

Endo-β-mannanases (MAN; EC. 3.2.1.78) catalyze the cleavage of β1[RIGHTWARDS ARROW]4 bonds in mannan polymers and have been associated with the process of weakening the tissues surrounding the embryo during seed germination. In germinating Arabidopsis thaliana seeds, the most highly expressed MAN gene is AtMAN7 and its transcripts are restricted to the micropylar endosperm and to the radicle tip just before radicle emergence. Mutants with a T-DNA insertion in AtMAN7 have a slower germination than the wild type. To gain insight into the transcriptional regulation of the AtMAN7 gene, a bioinformatic search for conserved non-coding cis-elements (phylogenetic shadowing) within the Brassicaceae MAN7 gene promoters has been done, and these conserved motifs have been used as bait to look for their interacting transcription factors (TFs), using as a prey an arrayed yeast library from A. thaliana. The basic-leucine zipper TF AtbZIP44, but not the closely related AtbZIP11, has thus been identified and its transcriptional activation upon AtMAN7 has been validated at the molecular level. In the knock-out lines of AtbZIP44, not only is the expression of the AtMAN7 gene drastically reduced, but these mutants have a significantly slower germination than the wild type, being affected in the two phases of the germination process, both in the rupture of the seed coat and in the breakage of the micropylar endosperm cell walls. In the over-expression lines the opposite phenotype is observed.

The breaking of axisymmetric slender liquid bridges

Liquids held by surface tension forces can bridge the gap between two solid bodies placed not too far apart from each other. The equilibrium conditions and stability criteria for static, cylindrical liquid bridges are well known. However, the behaviour of an unstable liquid bridge, regarding both its transition toward breaking and the resulting configuration, is a matter for discussion. The dynamical problem of axisymmetric rupture of a long liquid bridge anchored at two equal coaxial disks is treated in this paper through the adoption of one-dimensional theories which are widely used in capillary jet problems

Mechanical behavior and failure micromechanisms of hybrid 3D woven composites in tension

The deformation and failure micromechanisms of a hybrid 3D woven composite were studied in tension. Plain and open-hole composite coupons were tested in tension until failure in the fill and warp directions, as well as fiber tows extracted from the dry fabric and impregnated with the matrix. The macroscopic evolution of damage in the composite coupons was assessed by means of periodic unloading–reloading (to obtain the elastic modulus and the residual strain), whereas the microscopic mechanism were established by means of X-ray computed microtomography. To this end, specimens were periodically removed from the mechanical testing machine and infiltrated with ZnI-containing liquid to assess the main damage modes as a function of the applied strain. The experimental observations and the predictions of an isostrain model were used to understand the key factors controlling the elastic modulus, strength and notch sensitivity of hybrid 3D woven composites in tension. It was found that the full contribution of the glass fibers to the composite strength was not employed, due to the premature fracture of the carbon fibers, but their presence increased the fracture strain and the energy dissipated during fracture. Thus, hybridization of the 3D woven composite led to a notch-insensitive behavior as demonstrated by open-hole tests

Study of the behaviour of CFRDs founded on active faults

Study of the behaviour of CFRD (concrete face rockfill dams) founded on active faults. It is generally accepted that embankment dams founded on active faults exhibit good behaviour during the rupture of a fault, whereas concrete gravity dams may be more seriously affected if significant differential movements occur at their foundations. However, experience with CFRDs subjected to fault displacements at their foundation is limited and therefore it is important to analyse the likely response of CFRDs in such a scenario.

Binary metal oxides for composite ultrafiltration membranes

A new ultrafiltration membrane was developed by the incorporation of binary metal oxides inside polyethersulfone. Physico-chemical characterization of the binary metal oxides demonstrated that the presence of Ti in the TiO2?ZrO2 system results in an increase of the size of the oxides, and also their dispersity. The crystalline phases of the synthesized binary metal oxides were identified as srilankite and zirconium titanium oxide. The effect of the addition of ZrO2 can be expressed in terms of the inhibition of crystal growth of anocrystalline TiO2 during the synthesis process. For photocatalytic applications the band gap of the synthesized semiconductors was determined, confirming a gradual increase (blue shift) in the band gap as the amount of Zr loading increases. Distinct distributions of binary metal oxides were found along the permeation axis for the synthesized membranes. Particles with Ti are more uniformly dispersed throughout the membrane cross-section. The physico-chemical characterization of membranes showed a strong correlation between some key membrane properties and the spatial particle distribution in the membrane structure. The proximity of metal oxide fillers to the membrane surface determines the hydrophilicity and porosity of modified membranes. Membranes incorporating binary metal oxides were found to be promising candidates for wastewater treatment by ultrafiltration, considering the observed improvement influx and anti-fouling properties of doped membranes. Multi-run fouling tests of doped membranes confirmed the stability of permeation through membranes embedded with binary TiO2?ZrO2 particles.

Distributed models in P-Systems architectures to reduce computation time

Membrane systems are computational equivalent to Turing machines. However, their distributed and massively parallel nature obtains polynomial solutions opposite to traditional non-polynomial ones. At this point, it is very important to develop dedicated hardware and software implementations exploiting those two membrane systems features. Dealing with distributed implementations of P systems, the bottleneck communication problem has arisen. When the number of membranes grows up, the network gets congested. The purpose of distributed architectures is to reach a compromise between the massively parallel character of the system and the needed evolution step time to transit from one configuration of the system to the next one, solving the bottleneck communication problem. The goal of this paper is twofold. Firstly, to survey in a systematic and uniform way the main results regarding the way membranes can be placed on processors in order to get a software/hardware simulation of P-Systems in a distributed environment. Secondly, we improve some results about the membrane dissolution problem, prove that it is connected, and discuss the possibility of simulating this property in the distributed model. All this yields an improvement in the system parallelism implementation since it gets an increment of the parallelism of the external communication among processors. Proposed ideas improve previous architectures to tackle the communication bottleneck problem, such as reduction of the total time of an evolution step, increase of the number of membranes that could run on a processor and reduction of the number of processors.

Análisis estático de sistemas de membranas para la determinación de reglas activas

Esta tesis doctoral se enmarca dentro de la computación con membranas. Se trata de un tipo de computación bio-inspirado, concretamente basado en las células de los organismos vivos, en las que se producen múltiples reacciones de forma simultánea. A partir de la estructura y funcionamiento de las células se han definido diferentes modelos formales, denominados P sistemas. Estos modelos no tratan de modelar el comportamiento biológico de una célula, sino que abstraen sus principios básicos con objeto de encontrar nuevos paradigmas computacionales. Los P sistemas son modelos de computación no deterministas y masivamente paralelos. De ahí el interés que en los últimos años estos modelos han suscitado para la resolución de problemas complejos. En muchos casos, consiguen resolver de forma teórica problemas NP-completos en tiempo polinómico o lineal. Por otra parte, cabe destacar también la aplicación que la computación con membranas ha tenido en la investigación de otros muchos campos, sobre todo relacionados con la biología. Actualmente, una gran cantidad de estos modelos de computación han sido estudiados desde el punto de vista teórico. Sin embargo, el modo en que pueden ser implementados es un reto de investigación todavía abierto. Existen varias líneas en este sentido, basadas en arquitecturas distribuidas o en hardware dedicado, que pretenden acercarse en lo posible a su carácter no determinista y masivamente paralelo, dentro de un contexto de viabilidad y eficiencia. En esta tesis doctoral se propone la realización de un análisis estático del P sistema, como vía para optimizar la ejecución del mismo en estas plataformas. Se pretende que la información recogida en tiempo de análisis sirva para configurar adecuadamente la plataforma donde se vaya a ejecutar posteriormente el P sistema, obteniendo como consecuencia una mejora en el rendimiento. Concretamente, en esta tesis se han tomado como referencia los P sistemas de transiciones para llevar a cabo el estudio de dicho análisis estático. De manera un poco más específica, el análisis estático propuesto en esta tesis persigue que cada membrana sea capaz de determinar sus reglas activas de forma eficiente en cada paso de evolución, es decir, aquellas reglas que reúnen las condiciones adecuadas para poder ser aplicadas. En esta línea, se afronta el problema de los estados de utilidad de una membrana dada, que en tiempo de ejecución permitirán a la misma conocer en todo momento las membranas con las que puede comunicarse, cuestión que determina las reglas que pueden aplicarse en cada momento. Además, el análisis estático propuesto en esta tesis se basa en otra serie de características del P sistema como la estructura de membranas, antecedentes de las reglas, consecuentes de las reglas o prioridades. Una vez obtenida toda esta información en tiempo de análisis, se estructura en forma de árbol de decisión, con objeto de que en tiempo de ejecución la membrana obtenga las reglas activas de la forma más eficiente posible. Por otra parte, en esta tesis se lleva a cabo un recorrido por un número importante de arquitecturas hardware y software que diferentes autores han propuesto para implementar P sistemas. Fundamentalmente, arquitecturas distribuidas, hardware dedicado basado en tarjetas FPGA y plataformas basadas en microcontroladores PIC. El objetivo es proponer soluciones que permitan implantar en dichas arquitecturas los resultados obtenidos del análisis estático (estados de utilidad y árboles de decisión para reglas activas). En líneas generales, se obtienen conclusiones positivas, en el sentido de que dichas optimizaciones se integran adecuadamente en las arquitecturas sin penalizaciones significativas. Summary Membrane computing is the focus of this doctoral thesis. It can be considered a bio-inspired computing type. Specifically, it is based on living cells, in which many reactions take place simultaneously. From cell structure and operation, many different formal models have been defined, named P systems. These models do not try to model the biological behavior of the cell, but they abstract the basic principles of the cell in order to find out new computational paradigms. P systems are non-deterministic and massively parallel computational models. This is why, they have aroused interest when dealing with complex problems nowadays. In many cases, they manage to solve in theory NP problems in polynomial or lineal time. On the other hand, it is important to note that membrane computing has been successfully applied in many researching areas, specially related to biology. Nowadays, lots of these computing models have been sufficiently characterized from a theoretical point of view. However, the way in which they can be implemented is a research challenge, that it is still open nowadays. There are some lines in this way, based on distributed architectures or dedicated hardware. All of them are trying to approach to its non-deterministic and parallel character as much as possible, taking into account viability and efficiency. In this doctoral thesis it is proposed carrying out a static analysis of the P system in order to optimize its performance in a computing platform. The general idea is that after data are collected in analysis time, they are used for getting a suitable configuration of the computing platform in which P system is going to be performed. As a consequence, the system throughput will improve. Specifically, this thesis has made use of Transition P systems for carrying out the study in static analysis. In particular, the static analysis proposed in this doctoral thesis tries to achieve that every membrane can efficiently determine its active rules in every evolution step. These rules are the ones that can be applied depending on the system configuration at each computational step. In this line, we are going to tackle the problem of the usefulness states for a membrane. This state will allow this membrane to know the set of membranes with which communication is possible at any time. This is a very important issue in determining the set of rules that can be applied. Moreover, static analysis in this thesis is carried out taking into account other properties such as membrane structure, rule antecedents, rule consequents and priorities among rules. After collecting all data in analysis time, they are arranged in a decision tree structure, enabling membranes to obtain the set of active rules as efficiently as possible in run-time system. On the other hand, in this doctoral thesis is going to carry out an overview of hardware and software architectures, proposed by different authors in order to implement P systems, such as distributed architectures, dedicated hardware based on PFGA, and computing platforms based on PIC microcontrollers. The aim of this overview is to propose solutions for implementing the results of the static analysis, that is, usefulness states and decision trees for active rules. In general, conclusions are satisfactory, because these optimizations can be properly integrated in most of the architectures without significant penalties.

Algoritmos de distribución de cargas de proceso en computación con membranas

Con el surgir de los problemas irresolubles de forma eficiente en tiempo polinomial en base al dato de entrada, surge la Computación Natural como alternativa a la computación clásica. En esta disciplina se trata de o bien utilizar la naturaleza como base de cómputo o bien, simular su comportamiento para obtener mejores soluciones a los problemas que los encontrados por la computación clásica. Dentro de la computación natural, y como una representación a nivel celular, surge la Computación con Membranas. La primera abstracción de las membranas que se encuentran en las células, da como resultado los P sistemas de transición. Estos sistemas, que podrían ser implementados en medios biológicos o electrónicos, son la base de estudio de esta Tesis. En primer lugar, se estudian las implementaciones que se han realizado, con el fin de centrarse en las implementaciones distribuidas, que son las que pueden aprovechar las características intrínsecas de paralelismo y no determinismo. Tras un correcto estudio del estado actual de las distintas etapas que engloban a la evolución del sistema, se concluye con que las distribuciones que buscan un equilibrio entre las dos etapas (aplicación y comunicación), son las que mejores resultados presentan. Para definir estas distribuciones, es necesario definir completamente el sistema, y cada una de las partes que influyen en su transición. Además de los trabajos de otros investigadores, y junto a ellos, se realizan variaciones a los proxies y arquitecturas de distribución, para tener completamente definidos el comportamiento dinámico de los P sistemas. A partir del conocimiento estático –configuración inicial– del P sistema, se pueden realizar distribuciones de membranas en los procesadores de un clúster para obtener buenos tiempos de evolución, con el fin de que la computación del P sistema sea realizada en el menor tiempo posible. Para realizar estas distribuciones, hay que tener presente las arquitecturas –o forma de conexión– de los procesadores del clúster. La existencia de 4 arquitecturas, hace que el proceso de distribución sea dependiente de la arquitectura a utilizar, y por tanto, aunque con significativas semejanzas, los algoritmos de distribución deben ser realizados también 4 veces. Aunque los propulsores de las arquitecturas han estudiado el tiempo óptimo de cada arquitectura, la inexistencia de distribuciones para estas arquitecturas ha llevado a que en esta Tesis se probaran las 4, hasta que sea posible determinar que en la práctica, ocurre lo mismo que en los estudios teóricos. Para realizar la distribución, no existe ningún algoritmo determinista que consiga una distribución que satisfaga las necesidades de la arquitectura para cualquier P sistema. Por ello, debido a la complejidad de dicho problema, se propone el uso de metaheurísticas de Computación Natural. En primer lugar, se propone utilizar Algoritmos Genéticos, ya que es posible realizar alguna distribución, y basada en la premisa de que con la evolución, los individuos mejoran, con la evolución de dichos algoritmos, las distribuciones también mejorarán obteniéndose tiempos cercanos al óptimo teórico. Para las arquitecturas que preservan la topología arbórea del P sistema, han sido necesarias realizar nuevas representaciones, y nuevos algoritmos de cruzamiento y mutación. A partir de un estudio más detallado de las membranas y las comunicaciones entre procesadores, se ha comprobado que los tiempos totales que se han utilizado para la distribución pueden ser mejorados e individualizados para cada membrana. Así, se han probado los mismos algoritmos, obteniendo otras distribuciones que mejoran los tiempos. De igual forma, se han planteado el uso de Optimización por Enjambres de Partículas y Evolución Gramatical con reescritura de gramáticas (variante de Evolución Gramatical que se presenta en esta Tesis), para resolver el mismo cometido, obteniendo otro tipo de distribuciones, y pudiendo realizar una comparativa de las arquitecturas. Por último, el uso de estimadores para el tiempo de aplicación y comunicación, y las variaciones en la topología de árbol de membranas que pueden producirse de forma no determinista con la evolución del P sistema, hace que se deba de monitorizar el mismo, y en caso necesario, realizar redistribuciones de membranas en procesadores, para seguir obteniendo tiempos de evolución razonables. Se explica, cómo, cuándo y dónde se deben realizar estas modificaciones y redistribuciones; y cómo es posible realizar este recálculo. Abstract Natural Computing is becoming a useful alternative to classical computational models since it its able to solve, in an efficient way, hard problems in polynomial time. This discipline is based on biological behaviour of living organisms, using nature as a basis of computation or simulating nature behaviour to obtain better solutions to problems solved by the classical computational models. Membrane Computing is a sub discipline of Natural Computing in which only the cellular representation and behaviour of nature is taken into account. Transition P Systems are the first abstract representation of membranes belonging to cells. These systems, which can be implemented in biological organisms or in electronic devices, are the main topic studied in this thesis. Implementations developed in this field so far have been studied, just to focus on distributed implementations. Such distributions are really important since they can exploit the intrinsic parallelism and non-determinism behaviour of living cells, only membranes in this case study. After a detailed survey of the current state of the art of membranes evolution and proposed algorithms, this work concludes that best results are obtained using an equal assignment of communication and rules application inside the Transition P System architecture. In order to define such optimal distribution, it is necessary to fully define the system, and each one of the elements that influence in its transition. Some changes have been made in the work of other authors: load distribution architectures, proxies definition, etc., in order to completely define the dynamic behaviour of the Transition P System. Starting from the static representation –initial configuration– of the Transition P System, distributions of membranes in several physical processors of a cluster is algorithmically done in order to get a better performance of evolution so that the computational complexity of the Transition P System is done in less time as possible. To build these distributions, the cluster architecture –or connection links– must be considered. The existence of 4 architectures, makes that the process of distribution depends on the chosen architecture, and therefore, although with significant similarities, the distribution algorithms must be implemented 4 times. Authors who proposed such architectures have studied the optimal time of each one. The non existence of membrane distributions for these architectures has led us to implement a dynamic distribution for the 4. Simulations performed in this work fix with the theoretical studies. There is not any deterministic algorithm that gets a distribution that meets the needs of the architecture for any Transition P System. Therefore, due to the complexity of the problem, the use of meta-heuristics of Natural Computing is proposed. First, Genetic Algorithm heuristic is proposed since it is possible to make a distribution based on the premise that along with evolution the individuals improve, and with the improvement of these individuals, also distributions enhance, obtaining complexity times close to theoretical optimum time. For architectures that preserve the tree topology of the Transition P System, it has been necessary to make new representations of individuals and new algorithms of crossover and mutation operations. From a more detailed study of the membranes and the communications among processors, it has been proof that the total time used for the distribution can be improved and individualized for each membrane. Thus, the same algorithms have been tested, obtaining other distributions that improve the complexity time. In the same way, using Particle Swarm Optimization and Grammatical Evolution by rewriting grammars (Grammatical Evolution variant presented in this thesis), to solve the same distribution task. New types of distributions have been obtained, and a comparison of such genetic and particle architectures has been done. Finally, the use of estimators for the time of rules application and communication, and variations in tree topology of membranes that can occur in a non-deterministic way with evolution of the Transition P System, has been done to monitor the system, and if necessary, perform a membrane redistribution on processors to obtain reasonable evolution time. How, when and where to make these changes and redistributions, and how it can perform this recalculation, is explained.