Redes de información y conocimiento climatológico en el mundo hispánico del siglo XVIII

Durante la Ilustración, el imperio español alcanzó su máxima amplitud y las instituciones oficiales incrementaron su apoyo a las ciencias. Para defender sus fronteras y ejercer con eficacia el poder político, económico y religioso, la Corona y la Iglesia necesitaban obtener información precisa --incluida la climatológica-- de las posesiones españolas y de los pobladores de éstas. Fueron varios los procedimientos empleados para ello: sistema de cuestionarios y relaciones geográficas, estudios medico-topográficos, visitas e inspecciones oficiales, expediciones político-científicas, correspondencia epistolar, artículos periodísticos, etc. Dichos procedimientos fueron aplicados por redes de informadores cuyas actuaciones se basaban en la división del trabajo, el reparto de colaboradores en diferentes lugares, el uso de códigos de comunicación comprensibles, el envío de los resultados a los superiores jerárquicos y la toma de decisiones por las autoridades competentes. Las redes de información estaban sometidas a dictámenes que normalizaban su creación y continuidad temporal, daban forma a su estructura interna, especificaban sus cometidos y obligaban a cumplir protocolos y plazos. En su seno se idearon planes de investigación integrados en el estudio general de la Tierra, el ser humano y la cultura. El beneficio de las actuaciones de sus miembros se plasmó en cubrir grandes ámbitos geográficos con el consiguiente ahorro de tiempo, esfuerzos y medios. En sus correspondientes contextos, los miembros de las redes efectuaron estudios climatológicos conforme a intereses, imposiciones y circunstancias específicas. Así, los médicos se interesaron por las condiciones climáticas que influían en la salud humana; los funcionarios reales y los ingenieros militares describieron los climas locales y regionales aptos para el fomento y el control político, jurídico y educativo de los habitantes de los territorios hispánicos; los expedicionarios estudiaron las interacciones entre los fenómenos naturales y las influencias de los accidentes geográficos en los climas; los clérigos se interesaron por los aspectos estéticos, apologéticos y contemplativos de los climas; finalmente, en la prensa de la época se publicaron registros meteorológicos periódicos y trabajos climatológicos varios. En definitiva, el saber climatológico en el mundo hispánico ilustrado aportó algunos rasgos esenciales a la climatología en una etapa pre-fundacional de esta disciplina. Dichos rasgos se desarrollaron generalmente en una escala local o regional y se refirieron a los siguientes asuntos: el calor como principal agente de las modificaciones atmosféricas, de la formación de vapor acuoso y de las precipitaciones; la influencia del suelo en el aumento de humedad y calor en el aire; el poder de los vientos para trasladar de un lugar a otro el frío o el calor, el vapor de agua, los fenómenos atmosféricos y los agentes responsables de las enfermedades contagiosas; las propiedades del aire atmosférico y su capacidad para interaccionar con el medio ambiente; la condición estática y repetitiva de los climas, si bien se admitió que dichos fenómenos podían sufrir modificaciones; la corroboración experimental de las diferencias climáticas entre las zonas tropicales y medias del planeta; la refutación de que la naturaleza americana y sus habitantes eran inferiores a los europeos; y la demostración de que los principios rectores de los fenómenos físicos del Viejo y el Nuevo Mundo eran idénticos. Desde el último tercio del siglo XVIII, los documentos producidos por los componentes de las redes de información incluyeron datos meteorológicos. Pero no siempre se emplearon los mismos instrumentos de medida ni se siguieron los mismos protocolos de indagación en idénticas condiciones. Además, y salvo excepciones, los períodos durante los cuales se recabaron datos atmosféricos fueron relativamente cortos, y los expertos no efectuaron las mismas operaciones aritméticas con los parámetros. Por esta razón, y por la orientación utilitaria de los ilustrados hispánicos, el saber climatológico no obtuvo en el período y en el ámbito geográfico considerados resultados teóricos apreciables; en cambio, dio lugar a una gran cantidad de actividades prácticas con aplicaciones a la medicina, la agricultura, la náutica, el fomento, la prevención de riesgos naturales, etc. La principal utilidad de este trabajo consiste en servir de complemento a los procedimientos actualmente en uso en historia de la hidrología y en climatología histórica. ABSTRACT During the Enlightenment, the Spanish Empire achieved its highest length and State institutions increased their support to sciences. In order to defend their frontiers and to exercise political, economical and religious power, the Crown and the Church needed exact information --including the climatologic one-- about its possessions and its habitants. Some of the procedures employed to get that objective were: system of questionnaires and geographic relations, medical-topographic studies, official visits and inspections, political-scientific expeditions, direct mail, journalistic articles, etc. Those procedures were applied by informers´ networks which obtained, manned and transmitted every kind of data about the natural and moral reality of the Hispanic territories; their actions were based on the division of tasks, the distribution of collaborators at several places, the use of understandable communication codes and the sending of results to the hierarchical superiors; after, the competent authorities took decisions. The information networks were subjected to rules witch regulated its creation, temporary continuity, interior structure, objectives, protocols and periods. Their memberships invented plans about the general research of the Earth, the human beings and the culture; and they contributed to get benefits because of covering large geographic frames and economizing time, effort and means. According to their specifics contexts, concerns, impositions and circumstances, the informers performed climatologic tasks. Thus, the physicians were interested in the climatic conditions which affected to human health; the royal officers and military engineers described the most propitious climates to patronage and political, lawful and educative control of inhabitants of Hispanic territories; the participants in politic-scientific expeditions studied the interactions among natural phenomena and the influence of geographic aspects on the climate; the clergymen underlined the esthetic, apologetic and contemplative face of climates; finally, in the newspapers were published a lot of meteorological data and climatologic works. So, the climatologic knowledge in the Hispanic enlightened world added these essential aspects --referred in a local and regional area-- during the pre-foundational epoch of the climatology: the heat as first agent of atmospheric modifications, aqueous vapor and precipitations; the influx of the land in the increment of humidity and heat of the air; the power of the winds to convey the cold, the heat, the aqueous vapor, the atmospheric phenomena and the agents which caused contagious maladies; the properties of the air and its faculty to mediate with the environs; the static and repetitive condition of the climate and its possibility to experience change; the experimental confirmation of climatic varieties between tropical and central areas of the planet; the negation of the inferiority of the American nature and inhabitants; the demonstration about the equality of the rules which conducted physical phenomena in the Old and the New world. Since the last third part of the eighteenth century, the documents produced by the members of the networks included meteorological data. But the informers were not used to employ the same measure instruments and homogeneous protocols completion in the same conditions. Exceptions besides, the times of taking atmospheric data, usually were very short; and the experts did not carry out the same arithmetical operations with parameters. Because of this reason and the utilitarian guidance of the informers, during the Hispanic Enlightenment, it was not possible to obtain theoretic conclusions about climatologic knowledge; but there were a lot of practical activities applied to Medicine, Agriculture, Navigation, patronage, prevention of natural risks, etc. The main utility of this work consist in favoring the present procedures of the History of Hydrology and Historic Climatology.

Investigación sobre las causas que pudieron originar el hundimiento de la cubierta del tercer depósito del Canal de Isabel II en 1905

En la presente investigación se analiza la causa del hundimiento del cuarto compartimento del Tercer Depósito del Canal de Isabel II el 8 de abril de 1905, uno de los más graves de la historia de la construcción en España: fallecieron 30 personas y quedaron heridas otras 60. El Proyecto y Construcción de esta estructura era de D. José Eugenio Ribera, una de las grandes figuras de la ingeniería civil en nuestro país, cuya carrera pudo haber quedado truncada como consecuencia del siniestro. Dado el tiempo transcurrido desde la ocurrencia de este accidente, la investigación ha partido de la recopilación de la información relativa al Proyecto y a la propia construcción de la estructura, para revisar a continuación la información disponible sobre el hundimiento. De la construcción de la cubierta es interesante destacar la atrevida configuración estructural, cubriéndose una inmensa superficie de 74.000 m2 mediante una sucesión de bóvedas de hormigón armado de tan sólo 5 cm de espesor y un rebajamiento de 1/10 para salvar una luz de 6 m, que apoyaban en pórticos del mismo material, con pilares también muy esbeltos: 0,25 m de lado para 8 m de altura. Y todo ello en una época en la que la tecnología y conocimiento de las estructuras con este "nuevo" material se basaban en buena medida en el desarrollo de patentes. En cuanto a la información sobre el hundimiento, llama la atención en primer lugar la relevancia de los técnicos, peritos y letrados que intervinieron en el juicio y en el procedimiento administrativo posterior, poniéndose de manifiesto la trascendencia que el accidente tuvo en su momento y que, sin embargo, no ha trascendido hasta nuestros días. Ejemplo de ello es el papel de Echegaray -primera figura intelectual de la época- como perito en la defensa de Ribera, de D. Melquiades Álvarez -futuro presidente del Congreso- como abogado defensor, el General Marvá -uno de los máximos exponentes del papel de los ingenieros militares en la introducción del hormigón armado en nuestro país-, que presidiría la Comisión encargada del peritaje por parte del juzgado, o las opiniones de reconocidas personalidades internacionales del "nuevo" material como el Dr. von Emperger o Hennebique. Pero lo más relevante de dicha información es la falta de uniformidad sobre lo que pudo ocasionar el hundimiento: fallos en los materiales, durante la construcción, defectos en el diseño de la estructura, la realización de unas pruebas de carga cuando se concluyó ésta, etc. Pero la que durante el juicio y en los Informes posteriores se impuso como causa del fallo de la estructura fue su dilatación como consecuencia de las altas temperaturas que se produjeron aquella primavera. Y ello a pesar de que el hundimiento ocurrió a las 7 de la mañana... Con base en esta información se ha analizado el comportamiento estructural de la cubierta, permitiendo evaluar el papel que diversos factores pudieron tener en el inicio del hundimiento y en su extensión a toda la superficie construida, concluyéndose así cuáles fueron las causas del siniestro. De los resultados obtenidos se presta especial atención a las enseñanzas que se desprenden de la ocurrencia del hundimiento, enfatizándose en la relevancia de la historia -y en particular de los casos históricos de error- para la formación continua que debe existir en la Ingeniería. En el caso del hundimiento del Tercer Depósito algunas de estas "enseñanzas" son de plena actualidad, tales como la importancia de los detalles constructivos en la "robustez" de la estructuras, el diseño de estructuras "integrales" o la vigilancia del proceso constructivo. Por último, la investigación ha servido para recuperar, una vez más, la figura de D. José Eugenio Ribera, cuyo papel en la introducción del hormigón armado en España fue decisivo. En la obra del Tercer Depósito se arriesgó demasiado, y provocó un desastre que aceleró la transición hacia una nueva etapa en el hormigón estructural al abrigo de un mayor conocimiento científico y de las primeras normativas. También en esta etapa sería protagonista. This dissertation analyses the cause of the collapse of the 4th compartment of the 3th Reservoir of Canal de Isabel II in Madrid. It happened in 1905, on April 8th, being one of the most disastrous accidents occurred in the history of Spanish construction: 30 people died and 60 were injured. The design and construction supervision were carried out by D. José Eugenio Ribera, one of the main figures in Civil Engineering of our country, whose career could have been destroyed as a result of this accident. Since it occurred more than 100 years ago, the investigation started by compiling information about the structure`s design and construction, followed by reviewing the available information about the accident. With regard to the construction, it is interesting to point out its daring structural configuration. It covered a huge area of 74.000 m2 with a series of reinforced concrete vaults with a thickness of not more than 5 cm, a 6 m span and a rise of 1/10th. In turn, these vaults were supported by frames composed of very slender 0,25 m x 0,25 m columns with a height of 8 m. It is noteworthy that this took place in a time when the technology and knowledge about this "new" material was largely based on patents. In relation to the information about the collapse, its significance is shown by the important experts and lawyers that were involved in the trial and the subsequent administrative procedure. For example, Echegaray -the most important intellectual of that time- defended Ribera, Melquiades Álvarez –the future president of the Congress- was his lawyer, and General Marvá -who represented the important role of the military engineers in the introduction of reinforced concrete in our country-, led the Commission that was put in charge by the judge of the root cause analysis. In addition, the matter caught the interest of renowned foreigners like Dr. von Emperger or Hennebique and their opinions had a great influence. Nonetheless, this structural failure is unknown to most of today’s engineers. However, what is most surprising are the different causes that were claimed to lie at the root of the disaster: material defects, construction flaws, errors in the design, load tests performed after the structure was finished, etc. The final cause that was put forth during the trial and in the following reports was attributed to the dilatation of the roof due to the high temperatures that spring, albeit the collapse occurred at 7 AM... Based on this information the structural behaviour of the roof has been analysed, which allowed identifying the causes that could have provoked the initial failure and those that could have led to the global collapse. Lessons have been learned from these results, which points out the relevance of history -and in particular, of examples gone wrong- for the continuous education that should exist in engineering. In the case of the 3th Reservoir some of these lessons are still relevant during the present time, like the importance of detailing in "robustness", the design of "integral" structures or the due consideration of construction methods. Finally, the investigation has revived, once again, the figure of D. José Eugenio Ribera, whose role in the introduction of reinforced concrete in Spain was crucial. With the construction of the 3th Reservoir he took too much risk and caused a disaster that accelerated the transition to a new era in structural concrete based on greater scientific knowledge and the first codes. In this new period he would also play a major role.

De la isla de Menorca a las costas sur y este de Inglaterra: análisis del prototipo de torre Martello = From the island of Minorca to the south and east coasts of England: analysis of the prototype of the Martello tower

Esta tesis doctoral desarrolla una investigación original sobre las torres defensivas de Menorca y las torres Martello de las costas sur y este de Inglaterra. Con respecto a las torres menorquinas, se distinguen las de Alcaufar y Punta Prima, construidas por ingenieros militares españoles, en 1786; de las levantadas por el ejército británico durante su último periodo de dominación de la isla, entre 1798 y 1802. Estos ingenieros reales británicos construyen las torres Martello en las costas inglesas, entre 1805 y 1812; y otras, semejantes a ellas, en el resto de su Imperio, hasta mediados del siglo XIX. La falta de estudios que relacionen las torres defensivas de Menorca y las Martello inglesas dentro del marco disciplinario de la construcción, ha constituido la justificación de esta investigación. La hipótesis de trabajo plantea un objetivo principal: el estudio y análisis comparativo entre ellas, que se desarrolla en varios niveles de análisis: morfológico, físico-constructivo, de visibilidades; pero también territorial, histórico y poliorcético. Esta tesis cuestiona, en consecuencia, la idea tradicionalmente aceptada de que las torres Martello tomaran la torre de Mortella, en Córcega, o cualquiera de las denominadas torres "preMartello", como referencia para crear su prototipo. La metodología empleada combina los trabajos de gabinete con una intensa labor de campo, en la que se documentaron cincuenta y siete torres, catorce en Menorca y cuarenta y tres en Inglaterra. Se han redactado sus correspondientes fichas de datos, que incluyen aspectos generales - morfológicos y constructivos -, así como documentación fotográfica. Se han elaborado los levantamientos morfológicos de siete de estas torres, aquellas que por sus particularidades constructivas, o bien representan un determinado tipo de torre, o bien se distinguen del resto. Del mismo modo, se han desarrollado los levantamientos físico-constructivos y la caracterización de materiales de las cuatro torres más relevantes para este estudio: las menorquinas Alcaufar y Punta Prima, y las torres 24 y C, que ejemplifican, respectivamente, las levantadas en las costas sur y este de Inglaterra. El sistemático método de trabajo llevado a cabo ha favorecido la investigación y ha ayudado a obtener conclusiones que verifican la hipótesis planteada en la tesis y cumplen los objetivos establecidos al comienzo de la misma. ABSTRACT This doctoral thesis develops an original research on the defensive towers of Minorca, and the Martello towers on the south and east coasts of England. Regarding the Minorcan towers, Alcaufar and Punta Prima, built by the Spanish military engineers in 1786, must be distinguished from those erected by the British Army during its last period of domination of the island between 1798 and 1802. These Royal Engineers build the Martello towers on the English coasts between 1805 and 1812; and others, similar to them, in the rest of their Empire until the middle of the 19th century. The lack of studies linking these Minorcan and English towers, within the disciplinary framework of construction, has been the justification for this research. The hypothesis poses a main goal: the study and comparative analysis of them, which takes place at several levels of analysis: morphological, constructive, of visibilities; but also territorial, historical and poliorcetic. Consequently, this thesis questions the traditionally accepted notion that the Martello towers took the Corsican Mortella Tower, or any of the so-called “preMartello” towers as a reference to create their prototype. The methodology combines the cabinet works with significant fieldwork, in which fifty seven towers were documented, fourteen in Minorca and forty three in England. The corresponding data sheets were drafted including general aspects - morphological and constructive-, and photographic documentation. Morphological survey plans were developed for seven of these towers due to their construction peculiarities, which either denote a specific type of tower or makes it stand out from the rest. Likewise, constructive survey plans and material characterisation sheets of the four more relevant towers in this study were developed: the Minorcan Alcaufar and Punta Prima, and towers 24 and C, both respectively exemplifying those built on the south and east coasts of England. The systematic method of work encouraged the research and helped to draw conclusions that both confirm the hypothesis raised in the thesis and meet the objectives established at the beginning of it.

Education and Training of Future Nuclear Engineers Through the use of an Interactive Plant Simulator

The successful experience of the Jose Cabrera Nuclear Power Plant Interactive Graphical Simulator implementation in the Nuclear Engineering Department in the Universidad Polite´cnica de Madrid, for the Education and Training of nuclear engineers is shown in this paper. The paper starts with the objectives and the description of the Simulator Aula, and the methodology of work following the recommendations of the IAEA for the use of nuclear reactor simulators for education. The practices and material prepared for the students, as well as the operational and accident situations simulated are provided.

An example of Learning based on competences: Use of Maxima in Linear Algebra for Engineers

This paper analyzes the role of Computer Algebra Systems (CAS) in a model of learning based on competences. The proposal is an e-learning model Linear Algebra course for Engineering, which includes the use of a CAS (Maxima) and focuses on problem solving. A reference model has been taken from the Spanish Open University. The proper use of CAS is defined as an indicator of the generic ompetence: Use of Technology. Additionally, we show that using CAS could help to enhance the following generic competences: Self Learning, Planning and Organization, Communication and Writing, Mathematical and Technical Writing, Information Management and Critical Thinking.

News in engineering education in Spain effective from 2010 in presence of external changes and mixed crisis, looking mostly to agro and civil engineers.

The engineering careers models were diverse in Europe, and are adopting now in Spain the Bolonia process for European Universities. Separated from older Universities, that are in part technically active, Civil Engineering (Caminos, Canales y Puertos) started at end of 18th century in Spain adopting the French models of Upper Schools for state civil servants with exam at entry. After 1800 intense wars, to conserve forest regions Ingenieros de Montes appeared as Upper School, and in 1855 also the Ingenieros Agrónomos to push up related techniques and practices. Other Engineers appeared as Upper Schools but more towards private factories. These ES got all adapted Lower Schools of Ingeniero Tecnico. Recently both grew much in number and evolved, linked also to recognized Professions. Spanish society, into European Community, evolved across year 2000, in part highly well, but with severe discordances, that caused severe youth unemployment with 2008-2011 crisis. With Bolonia process high formal changes step in from 2010-11, accepted with intense adaptation. The Lower Schools are changing towards the Upper Schools, and both that have shifted since 2010-11 various 4-years careers (Grado), some included into the precedent Professions, and diverse Masters. Acceptation of them to get students has started relatively well, and will evolve, and acceptation of new grades for employment in Spain, Europe or outside will be essential. Each Grado has now quite rigid curricula and programs, MOODLE was introduced to connect pupils, some specific uses of Personal Computers are taught in each subject. Escuela de Agronomos centre, reorganized with its old name in its precedent buildings at entrance of Campus Moncloa, offers Grados of Agronomic Engineering and Science for various public and private activities for agriculture, Alimentary Engineering for alimentary activities and control, Agro-Environmental Engineering more related to environment activities, and in part Biotechnology also in laboratories in Campus Monte-Gancedo for Biotechnology of Plants and Computational Biotechnology. Curricula include Basics, Engineering, Practices, Visits, English, ?project of end of career?, Stays. Some masters will conduce to specific professional diploma, list includes now Agro-Engineering, Agro-Forestal Biotechnology, Agro and Natural Resources Economy, Complex Physical Systems, Gardening and Landscaping, Rural Genie, Phytogenetic Resources, Plant Genetic Resources, Environmental Technology for Sustainable Agriculture, Technology for Human Development and Cooperation.

New methodology on Applied Geology and Geology for Engineers education by using practical trip

There has been much discussion on the primacy of theory over practice. Today prevails the exaggeration of practice. This idea forgets too that teaching problem is a problem of right balance. The approach of the action lines on the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) framework provides for such balance. Applied Geology subject represents the first real contact with the physical environment with the practice profession and works. Besides, the situation of the topic in the first trace of Study Plans for many students implies the link to other subjects and topics of the career. This work analyses in depth the justification of such practical trips only on Applied Geology. This methodology could be usual in Study Plans of pure sciences career, Geology or Biology, but not in Civil Engineering like teaching method. It shows the criteria and methods of planning and the result which manifests itself in pupils. Therefore, work shows a methodology taking in account the engineering perspective, the practical point of view and the learning process inside students and their evaluation and, hence, their marks.